What is servant leadership and who is it relevant to? Can a leader really be a servant?

I never really thought about the leadership ability of my father until I became a leader in my own right. I certainly did not fully appreciate his role as a leader until I became a parent. This was mostly because – when growing up – I never really thought of my dad, and what he did as a father, as a leadership position. To me, leaders were the loud, larger than life characters who led countries, armies, or large corporations. Back then I had a very narrow view of leadership.

My father was not the archetypal leader. He was not some charismatic figure in senior management. He was not a visionary, an intellectual or a great orator. But, to make up for this last point, he has never been shy of sharing a joke (no matter how good the joke or appropriate the context!)

So, what did he do (apart from dad-jokes) that made him a leader?

The father as leader

Well, he led my family – with my mother – through shared sacrifice. He served us as a family and put that team first in his priorities. He worked hard to be a provider, to be a role model for us, and he was true to his values.

As a provider, he set the standard for reliability and hard work. He was employed for the same company for most of his working life and never took a day off sick. When he came home, he read to us children (while trying not to fall asleep) and then was off working around the house or in the garden.

He led with integrity. He kept his own standards, and his actions matched his words. One example of this was that he did not swear in front of us children or bad mouth other people. This was a small but powerful lesson for us. It is only now, as a parent, that I realise how hard this is to do!

My father’s values were founded on his faith in God. He was not ostentatious in his faith, but he was always truthful about what he believed and gave straightforward answers when questioned. These values, such as his love for others, service to the community and honesty in his words and dealings, all shone through in the little things of everyday life. In so doing, my father provided a powerful example of good servant leadership.

The servant as leader

The idea of servant leadership was popularised by Robert K Greenleaf in his book, of the same name (1977). His phrase, the ‘servant as leader’ has been shortened over time to ‘servant leader’ but it is worth reflecting on the original construction. The ‘servant as leader’ reveals Greenleaf’s premise that we are all servants and, at times, we all need to take the role of leader, while maintaining this servant-heartedness.

This phrase is a seeming contradiction. Servant and leader are often (mistakenly) seen as opposites. His wording is also both divisive and inclusive. It is divisive, and potentially offensive, by using the term servant. The word servant actually comes from the Latin servus which means slave. Who wants to be a servant, let alone a slave?

But here again, lies a deeper truth. We are all servants of something. If we chase addictive substances or behaviours we become slaves. We can enslave ourselves to ideas such as wealth, fame, or appearance. And even if we avoid these extremes, we all serve something. That might be others, a higher ideal, God or ourselves, but we all choose to prioritise some thing. That is what makes us servants. The question is:

“Whom do you serve and to what purpose?”

Robert Greenleaf

If we accept the first premise, the second is that, although we are all servants, we all have the capacity and responsibility to lead. This is because the philosophy of this sort of leadership (and much of modern leadership theory) is that leadership is influence; not necessarily an official position. We can also all learn to be better leaders; there are skills we can improve. Therefore, we can lead from whichever position we find ourselves in, with whatever measure of power.

What servant leadership is

The servant as a leader is different to the leader who seeks power, fame and fortune. This serving model of leadership stands in contrast to Great Man theory and the cult of personality, or the Machiavellian, unprincipled manipulation of people to achieve one’s ends. The servant-leader is not driven to acquire power or possessions but motivated instead to serve the community, to serve others. As Greenleaf puts it:

“The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead.”

Robert Greenleaf

Within this approach, there is an emphasis on serving and developing other people. The servant-leader seeks to share power, prioritise the needs of others and raise up new servant leaders. This is why the true test of the servant leader, their legacy, is in the growth of who they lead.

“Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?”

Robert Greenleaf

The potential pitfall of servant leadership

There are pros and cons to servant leadership. There is a potential danger of this emphasis on serving others if misconstrued. Serving others is not tending to every whim of every individual. That would seem like serving them but would actually be counterproductive. To take an extreme example, you do not best help an alcoholic by giving them a drink whenever they ask for it. Equally, any parent knows, that giving a child everything they want will not serve them in the long run.

That is why there needs to be a vision, an idea of what the future can look like. Most importantly, in this vision, the servant leader must see the potential of the person they are serving. They seek to guide that person toward their future better self; not just react to the imperfect person standing in front of them. This idea of the leader serving the person, but towards a longer-term mission and goal can be seen in the inspiration that lies behind Greenleaf’s work.

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The inspiration behind servant leadership

Greenleaf was inspired, amongst other things, by Herman Hesse’s book Journey to the East. In this story, a group of travellers is on a pilgrimage to find enlightenment. At first, things go well, but they face a crisis and their servant, Leo, goes missing. The group falls into disarray and they abandon their journey. Many years later, the main character – still on his search – discovers that Leo is actually the leader of the spiritual order he had been seeking all along.

Greenleaf also looks to the example of Jesus of Nazareth as a historical example of the servant leader. The Jesus of the Bible did not seek fame, power and riches and yet – by serving those around him and developing his disciples – had an impact as a leader that is unparalleled.

Greenleaf helped to renew these old truths and has in turn inspired famous leaders and management experts such as Stephen R Covey (author of Principled Centred Leadership), Simon Sinek (author of Leaders Eat Last) and Ken Blanchard (author of The One Minute Manager).

“Servant leaders don’t think less of themselves, they just think of themselves less often”.

Ken Blanchard

Serve to lead

This paradoxical paradigm of leadership has had a great impact, even in unexpected places. I started out my career as a bomb disposal officer in the Army. Stereotypically people think of military leaders as being confident, loud, and directive. If all you watched was war movies you could assume that martial leadership is mostly about shouting!

Directive leadership does have its place when you are storming trenches or kicking down doors to enemy compounds, but it is not the cornerstone of military management. The motto of the British Army’s leadership school, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is, ‘Serve to Lead’. Equally, ‘Selfless Service’ is one of the seven basic values of the United States Army.

At Sandhurst I was taught to genuinely care about my soldiers, not just lead them into battle. I joined the Army for adventure, but seeing soldiers develop and grow became one of the most satisfying parts of my job. Take this short example:

When I took over my first troop of 30 soldiers, I was warned by the outgoing lieutenant about one particular soldier who was a troublemaker. After watching this young man for a while, I chose to take a risk, gave him a position of responsibility, and took him on operations. His behaviour changed and he developed into one of my best junior non-commissioned officers. It was one of the most rewarding experiences of my young career, seeing someone who was destined for the scrap-pile, turned around and set on a new course.

Why servant leadership?

Without a servant hearted approach, based on a love for others, those with power can fall into two common traps.

The leader, pursuing their dream at any cost, can use people as fuel to the fire. Just resources to be burned in order to achieve the mission. I have worked with organisations led by this type of leader. Entrepreneurs can allow their passion override their compassion. Early on this can get results but it is not sustainable. I have seen start-ups fall due to this sort of approach. This risk is shared with the Transformational Leadership style as well.

The manager, concerned with efficiency and output, can see people as just a cog in the machine. That wheel might need the occasional grease but can be run until it is worn out. A cog is easy to throw away and replace. It is very transactional. I have also seen this in the workplace. I have seen good people thrown on the pile because they are inexperienced, unconfident or just in the wrong role. It is easy – in our hire-and-fire culture – just to replace someone rather than develop or relocate them.

As a boss, this also means releasing people. It is tough losing your best team members but if a move to a new position or place is genuinely the best thing for that individual then the manager should support and encourage the move, not coerce that person to stay.

From small things to great things

The examples of servant leadership, from Abraham Lincoln to Mother Teresa, show that a servant attitude and small acts can compound into great impact, even to the national and international level.

One building trend, through organisations such as B Corps, is that business leaders are once again learning to steward their people, and the resources of the planet, by measuring success against something other than pure profit.

Is this how you are building your organisation?

Starting steps of the servant leader

Whatever your position or role, being a servant leader starts with the inspiration to act and then taking small steps. For me, it was my father who gave me my first role model of servant leadership. Then being taught to ‘serve to lead’ in the army and reading Greenleaf’s writings gave me the inspiration I needed.

Being the ‘servant as leader’ has become ingrained. Wherever I am and whoever I am with, I know that I have the responsibility to serve and to lead.

This has helped me to see people differently and to act differently. I have realised that this type of leadership can be expressed in every interaction we have. It could be in a word of praise for the person serving coffee, words of encouragement to a child who is struggling, or stopping to ask if someone needs help.

It all starts with inspiration to make a difference in the small things. So, what small act of servant leadership can you do today?

If you would like to learn more about other leadership styles and theories then check out the following articles:

An Introduction to the 10 Most Influential Leadership Theories

Exploring Different Types of Leadership Styles

There are lots of list of the best leadership and management books such as those on Google, Soundview and Amazon. I have compared these against the recommendations of Time magazine, and the New York Times bestsellers lists to come up with an integrated list that I can personally vouch for, having read all of the titles.

All these books are great resources of wisdom and practical advice for leaders and managers, and I would recommend you read them all. But, with busy lives and so many books to read, where should you start?

Hopefully these pity summaries can help. I have composed these Haiku poems, each as a short synopsis of each book. Any volume would be hard to sum up in 1700 words, let alone 17 syllables, but hopefully there is enough to reveal a key lesson or inspire you to try the book.

I have included Amazon links to each publication. These are affiliate links so don’t feel you need to use them.

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1. Start with Why by Simon Sinek

Always Start With Why.

The question unlocks purpose,

To ensure success.

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2. Dare to Lead by Brene Brown

Fear is not weakness.

Be courageous, bold and lead,

While vulnerable.

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3. The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen R. Covey

First, lead yourself well

And be principle centred.

Then influence all.

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4. The 4-Hour Workweek by Tim Ferriss

Design your business,

Create a passive income,

Work from anywhere.

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5. Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman

Whether fast or slow,

Understand your biases

For good decisions

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6. Outliers – The Story of Success by Malcolm Gladwell

To become master

Ten thousand hours of practice

Is a minimum.

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7. Good to Great by Jim Collins

Connect your passion

With your world class expertise

For sustained profit.

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8. The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership by John C Maxwell

All laws here agree:

Leadership is influence.

Use your power well.

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9. The Art of War by Sun Tzu

Know your enemy

And by knowing thyself too,

One fears no defeat.

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10. The Lean Startup by Eric Ries

Build your prototype,

See what customers want most,

Learn and pivot fast.

What is transactional leadership? What are its pros and cons? How does it differ from transformational leadership?

When meetings go wrong

It was turning into my worst ever Monday morning. Certainly, my worst as a project manager and probably the most miserable meeting I had endured as a leader in any context.

I was struggling to stay focused. The meeting was a disaster, playing out like a waking nightmare to my exhausted mind. I had just flown overnight, back from the US to Europe. For the first time, I really understood what flying the ‘red-eye’ really meant. My eyes felt like sandpaper. I had consumed some coffee – three rapid-fire espressos – but my tired and rebellious body just laughed this off and went on strike.

But I could not sleep. I had flown back to be at the Monday morning meeting with the property developer. This would usually be routine but as I strained under the weight of my leaden eyelids, I found myself ambushed by a project that had gone awry while I had been away. I was the project manager and – despite the fact I had been on vacation when things had gone wrong – I was held responsible in this Kafkaesque show trial.

The blame game

Various costs, delays, and mistakes were hurled at me in a steady bombardment. It was the first time I had heard of these misadventures, but no one cared. The various contractors and consultants, who were generally the cause of said mishaps, were not going to lift their heads above the parapet in my defence.

The silence of the guilty. Their time would come.

I stayed on the ropes for two hours, absorbing each punch until the bell rang for the meeting to end. I tried to slope away afterwards, nurse my wounds, and start to consider what had just happened, but I was cut off by the lead developer. He took me around the back for a very personal verbal kicking. He questioned my character, competence and parentage.

I went from tired, to numb, to depressed, to angry. It took at least 24 hours, and some rest, to come up with a plan. I looked at each problem, identified the party who I believed was the root cause and then studied the legal obligations in their contracts. I did not hold much power, but I did hold the purse strings when it came to paying consultants. So armed with my contracts and cash flow projections I went into bat with the contractors. 48 hrs later and the project was back on track.

The project manager’s challenge

When I worked in the construction industry as a project manager it was a classic middle-man leadership position. As a project manager, I had very little actual power. What influence I did have, beyond my interpersonal skills, came down to contracts and cash.

It is not my preferred style of management, but this is where the real leverage lies in these sorts of situations. If something goes wrong, relationships will get you some of the way, but when it really gets painful it is the legal wording and the threat of non-payment that brings people to the negotiating table.

What is transactional leadership? 

Transactional leadership is the name for this type of management. It is a leadership style following behavioural leadership theory. The approach is also related to the psychology of Transactional Analysis.

This approach relies on people’s needs and a ‘give and take’ approach to keep the team on track. In this way, it is closely linked to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. The rewards and punishments reflect a trade of basic human needs. The manager barters with the team, dangling the carrot of incentives such as wages or recognition while holding the stick of contract, discipline, or expulsion to maintain cohesion.

Transactional leadership is based upon the assumption that:

“In simple terms, better pay, (are linked to) better performance, promotion, further productivity” (Bass and Avolio (1994)).

This holds true to an extent. The more enlightened factory owners in the industrial revolution realised that adequate pay, better working conditions and rest did improve productivity. By providing the basic needs of shelter, enough money for food, rest and a secure job and environment, factory owners could have happier, more productive workers. But as we shall see, this approach has its limits.

Carrot and stick

Transactional management uses both carrot and stick; rewards and punishments.

There is generally some benchmarked expectation of performance, contracted between worker and manager. Performance above this baseline of work can be rewarded, and equally, if productivity dips below the line then punishments are used to ensure compliance.

Any parent knows that there are times when this mode of leadership is needed. In the same way, there are times – when things may be less than pleasant or time-dependent – when transactional leadership may be necessary to carry through a project or phase of delivery.

The transactional approach to management is generally effective and ensuring a reasonable level of productivity but the challenge comes when you want to inspire people beyond that.

The pros and cons of transactional leadership

On the plus side, transactional leadership is a simple and fair approach and can assure a level of performance. Because it relies on basic human needs and behaviours it is broadly effective in making people work. For the aspiring manager, it is also easy to understand and implement.

But, as mentioned previously, transactional leadership rarely gets the best from anyone. Going back to the discussion of Maslow’s hierarchy, once people have their basic needs covered – such as enough food to eat, basic shelter and security – just increasing a person’s potential resources does not necessarily lead to a proportional increase in productivity.

Research has shown that monetary incentives do not necessarily improve performance. Also, if penalties are too harsh, workers will be unwilling to take risks. People won’t take risks if they are worried about their pay or job security. Fear of punishment is a poor atmosphere for creativity. To allow people to experiment (and therefore likely fail) there needs to be an environment of psychological safety.

Transactional leadership, when carried to extremes, is the tool of despots and authoritarian regimes. There may be rewards but in these cases, the threat of punishment becomes the regimes preferred means of coercion.

Therefore, it is hard to develop a high-performing team with transactional leadership alone. This is why transactional leadership is usually seen as the poor cousin of transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is about inspiring the team with a vision, supporting the growth of individuals, and achieving a higher purpose rather than just getting a job done.

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When to use managerial leadership

But there are times when you do just need to get the job done. You may not have the big vision, the team you would choose or the task you want, but you have to complete the project or task. At these times – as I experienced as a project manager – transactional leadership can be effective.

Transactional leadership is suitable for tame problems. These are problems that are well defined and understood. Tame problems may be complicated, but they have tried and tested solutions, even if a degree of creativity is involved. A process can therefore be applied to these types of problems and this process can then be managed towards a solution. This is why transactional leadership is also known as managerial leadership.

Basic project, programme and production management fall into this category. A product being pieced together in a factory may be complex in its composition, but all of the construction steps are pre-defined. Similarly, most buildings, even if they have a novel exterior design, are constructed in tried and tested ways. Some crisis and emergency situations can also fall into this category. If there is a known process for dealing with the issue, then the situation can be managed.

However, the managerial approach falls short when problems are wicked in nature or when creativity is needed. The highest performing teams and the most challenging problems require other leadership approaches.

Keep transactional leadership in your toolkit

I still feel slightly queasy when I remember back to that Monday car crash of a meeting. Fortunately, I was able to recover my situation with the help of transactional leadership.

Transactional leadership is not my preferred style of management but there are times when it is necessary. When things go wrong, and relationships break down, it is an approach to fall back on. Then it is important to be straight with people. Down the line, by the book, firm but fair.

So, as a leader make sure you have transactional leadership as a tool in your back pocket. And back up this contingency plan with the contracts or other levers you will need if things go wrong. But always remember: the carrot and stick approach is not as powerful as visionary, or servant leadership can be. People want a higher purpose to work for. Not just cash and contracts.

If you are interested in exploring other leadership styles then read An Introduction to the 10 Most Influential Leadership Theories.

What is transformational leadership? How does it differ from transactional leadership? Is it just being charismatic?

Leadership challenges

What is the hardest leadership role you have ever fulfilled? When people hear that I was a bomb disposal officer and have done multiple operational tours they naturally assume that it was in some warzone where my leadership was most tested. My leadership was certainly tested in these environments. I had to command soldiers and achieve missions but, in those early years of leadership, there was something I was lacking. That something was transformational leadership.

I only realised this when I was working for a non-profit start-up after leaving the Army. I was, among other things, employed as the Production Manager and this role meant I had to organise the set-up of all our events. Having worked on complicated construction tasks as a project manager this was – in theory at least – a relatively straightforward task. But there was one major challenge.

Event management

The preparation for our major events was driven by the set-up of the stage. This was the ‘critical path’ of activity. We had to erect the frame for the lighting and set up the speakers before the band could do their soundcheck. The band required a lot of time to do a soundcheck (picture a drummer tapping a snare long enough to induce madness) and after this was done they required a long practice too. Apparently, musicians can never have enough practice.

All this meant, that when you worked back from the start time of the event, my team had to be in way earlier than everyone else because before anyone of this strutting, tuning or even setting up could take place, we had to unpack the store and move the equipment just to get to the start point. Our venue was a big West End theatre in London and Victorian-era theatres are built like rabbit warrens. Moving large equipment around required winches, mechanical lifts, and lots of shuffling, grunting and cries of “left a bit, left a bit, no LEFT!”

So, the task was complex and had a tight deadline, but it was certainly not insurmountable. I could plan each task and the time it would require. The critical nature of the task was not the challenge.

The difficult sell

The challenge came from the fact this set-up would require a large team and we – the organisation putting on the event – were a charity. We did not have the money to pay all the people needed to do this scale of work. So basically, I had to convince a bunch of volunteers to give up their free time and work for me, for nothing, and get up early (rather than have a nice lie-in) at the weekend.

A difficult sell? Well, it gets worse, because after the event, on the same day, we had to pull everything down again. This took several more hours, so by now, you are looking at a 10-12 hour working day, on your day off, for no pay. And the real kicker? We had to do this every single week throughout the year. Volunteers? Anybody?

But the amazing thing was, we pulled it off. In the process, I learned a lot about the true meaning of transformational leadership.

From transactional to transformational leadership

I already had a good knowledge of transactional leadership. This leadership style was one that I employed a lot as a project manager. Transactional leadership plays to the needs of individuals, using rewards, and where necessary disincentives or punishments, to ensure performance and the achievement of a goal. The approach plays on our basic needs, as per Maslow’s hierarchy, to ensure compliance.

Transformational leadership, by contrast, goes beyond just self-interest. It seeks to draw people to the highest point on the Maslow triangle – that of self-actualisation. To achieve this the transformational leader needs to inspire their team with a vision. This vision is so compelling that it encourages people to stretch themselves as individuals, to come together as a team, and to work together for long-lasting change.

Who developed transformational leadership theory?

The term transformational leadership was first coined by James Downton (author of Rebel Leadership) who conducted research on charismatic leaders. However, the early theory was refined by James MacGregor Burns (1978) who differentiated leadership styles as either transactional or transformational. Burns used the lens of political leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr, to explore the idea of those who led positive social change. This positive change was one of the key hallmarks of transformational leadership.

“In real life, the most practical advice for leaders is not to treat pawns like pawns, nor princes like princes, but all persons like persons.”

James MacGregor Burns

Bernard M Bass helped to further popularise the concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (1985). He has continued his research and published a large number of influential research papers on the topic since then. Bass added to previous research by working out how the influence of a leader, and their degree of transformational effect, can be measured.

Charismatic vs transformational leaders

Bernard Bass also helped to define the difference between charismatic and transformational leadership. Charisma plays an important role in transformational leadership as it is the means by which a leader communicates vision and inspires people.

“Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often more than they originally thought possible.”

Bernard M Bass

But charisma without social conscience can lead to negative extremes of leadership, as displayed by the likes of Hitler or Osama Bin Laden (more akin to the Great Man theory of leadership). The authentic transformational leader is not seeking to exploit others. They transcend their own personal interest for the sake of a larger, positive vision of the future. They also have the best interests of their followers at heart. These differences can be best seen in the four core components of transformational leadership.

The four key components of transformational leadership

The four components of transformational leadership are:

• Idealised Influence
• Inspirational Motivation
• Intellectual Stimulation
• Individualised Consideration

Idealised Influence 

The transformational leader creates idealised influence through being a positive role model to their followers. Their behaviour inspires others to higher standards of conduct. A transformational leader also demonstrates the willingness to take risks and displays confidence in overcoming obstacles.

Going back to my experience as a Production Manager the most important element of idealised influence for me was remaining calm. As a team we were always under time pressure and, more likely than not, we would face some issue or another on any given day. Remaining calm in the face of adversity helped everyone else to ‘keep calm and carry on,’ as the saying goes.

I also tried to set the example of work ethic. To do this, for this scenario, it was important that I was first to arrive and the last to leave. I got stuck in with the manual work and would take on the most difficult or unpleasant tasks if we were short-handed as a team. A good sense of humour also went a long way in setting the tone for the team. It was important that we had fun alongside working hard.

Inspirational Motivation 

Inspirational motivation goes beyond just leading from the front. This comes from effectively communicating a vision that brings meaning to the work of the team. The vision has to be compelling enough to capture people’s hearts and challenging enough to stretch people’s minds.

“The leader articulates a compelling vision of the future.”

Bernard M Bass

For us, the work we were doing, setting up events, was part of the much bigger picture. The organisation we were part of was committed to helping transform London.

London is an amazing place. It is a cultural geezer, a well-spring of politics, art and business. But hidden beneath the glare of the lights and smothered beneath the noise there is a lot of brokenness. Therefore, the vision was to build a community, in central London, to serve the city and see it renewed at every level.  It was a family of artists, accountants, musicians, bankers, teachers, emergency services workers – and everything in between – who wanted to inspire people to be better. Lawyers who wanted to see real justice, financiers who wanted to alleviate poverty and business leaders who did not measure success just by profit.

It was incredibly exciting. I bought into that vision. I moved house and changed career to be a part of it. And, even though I was not the original dreamer of the dream, once I had captured the vision, I wanted to share it.

So, my job as a leader was to connect the job we were doing to that larger vision and that is what we did at the start of every set-up. We gathered as a team to pray and remind each other of why we were giving up our weekends. There was no way I could have persuaded the teams to give up their time willingly if they did not buy into the mission.

Intellectual Stimulation

A transformational leader needs to provide intellectual stimulation to individuals in their team. This can be done by setting challenging goals, but perhaps more importantly, by encouraging creativity and allowing people to take risks.

Manual labour – which is effectively what we were doing – did not seem to lend itself to creativity but there even I was surprised. Given the opportunity, the team brought innovative solutions to every part of what we did. Whether it was new storage solutions or ethical sourcing of products, each team member was able to bring ideas to improve our work.

One simple idea that came from team members was eating together during the soundcheck. There was a slack time for us while this was going on and eating together brought social bonds beyond which we would have gained in just working alongside each other. Many deeper, long-term friendships were born out of these shared lunches. It taught me that any creative idea, no matter how small, can bring huge rewards if you are willing to experiment and try things out.

Individualised Consideration

A truly transformational leader gives special attention to every individual in their team. This is what is meant by individualised consideration. A good leader is always looking for learning and then supports the team member through their growth. As Bass puts it:

“The leader is individually considerate, providing the follower with support, mentoring and coaching“

Transformational leaders also work to turn their followers into leaders. They empower individuals, set challenges, and help people to change expectations of what they can achieve.

As Production Manager, my long-term goal was to do myself out of a role. I wanted to raise up new leaders to take over my position. The organisation was growing rapidly so there were plenty of other challenges for me to take on. Equally, if I failed to raise up new leaders, I would stymy the expansion of the organisation as a whole. Therefore, I systematically coached and mentored my team leaders. They all developed into excellent leaders and one of them did indeed go on to take over from me. It has been a great pleasure to see each of these leaders go on to success in their professional work in the subsequent years. Being part of their leadership development journey, even in a small way, was a real privilege.

Transforming your approach to leadership

Transformational leadership is a term often used but much less frequently understood. A true, authentic transformational leader is known by the following traits: they are a positive role model; they communicate a compelling vision; they embrace creativity and develop their followers into the leaders of the future.

It took a very different leadership challenge, that of leading volunteers, for me to fully grasp these lessons, but once learned I have not forgotten them since. In my subsequent jobs, I have continued to measure myself against these four key areas. That process of examining my practice against the standard for transformational leadership has changed me, as a leader and manager, for the better.

How about you? Would you describe yourself as a transformational leader? We can all find areas for improvement. Which area do you most need to work on? Why not take a couple of minutes now to think about what you can do today to develop your leadership? If you are looking for help with identifying skills, read Leadership Skills: The Five-Level Competency Framework for inspiration. You might surprise yourself – the results can be transformational!

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What is authentic leadership? How does it differ from other leadership theories and styles? What qualities do you need to be an authentic leader?

Finding authenticity (in far away places)

I stopped and stared at the footprint. It was about the size of a dinner plate and as far as I was concerned it was not supposed to be there. Unfortunately, no matter how long I stared at it, the print would not disappear from the otherwise pristine snow. It was undoubtedly a polar bear footprint, but I had assumed no bear would come this far up into the mountains. The evidence in front of me told me I was wrong. The problem was I had planned against this false assumption and decided, that to save weight, I would not carry my rifle and ammunition with me when we scaled the mountain. A rifle is not a usual bit of mountaineering equipment but when you are in a remote location in Greenland it is better to carry a rifle than to become a hungry bear’s mid-morning snack.

Gazing at the footprint reminded me of a joke. Two guys are camping, and a bear appears and starts growling. The first guy immediately opens his rucksack and starts to put on his training shoes. The second guy says “Your crazy! You can’t outrun a bear!” The first guy replies, “I don’t have to outrun the bear, I just have to outrun you.”

My climbing partner asked me why I was smiling.

Exit pursued by a bear

It would have been somewhat insensitive to share what I had been thinking. I probably could outrun my climbing partner but, considering she was also my wife, I was not going to point this out. If I did, I would have not remained alive, or married, long enough to do anything.

I pushed the distracting thoughts away and considered our options. We could head back to the tent for the rifle – which would take at least an hour – or continue up the mountain. I figured that if the polar bear was still around then the traverse back to the campsite would be the most likely way to meet it. Therefore, we choose to continue up the mountain. Hopefully, by the time we were done, the bear would have moved on, heading back to the glacier for some tasty seal, rather than following us any higher.

I hoped.

The pursuit of adventure

I have always loved adventure. As a kid, I dreamed of being Indiana Jones or MacGyver and would roam the woods with my Swiss Army knife practising my skills. Some of these dreams I turned into reality. I went on expeditions to the jungles of Central America to look for archaeological remains and went on to train as a bomb disposal officer.

I also dreamed of being an explorer and doing a real ‘first’. That led me to become a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and researching the few bits of virgin territory left in the world. Through this study, I became attracted to Greenland as a place where there were still mountains that had no recorded first ascents or descents, particularly on skis, which is the method I was hoping to use. The mountains in Greenland are not particularly tall or necessarily technical, so they did not hold the allure for all mountaineers, but they suited me just fine. They were remote, untouched, and ripe for scaling.

That idea had led to this expedition, to this climb and this moment of decision regarding the bear. Making choices about avoiding bears is not every leader’s day-to-day but it reflected who I am. Being adventurous was part of my true self; a facet of me as an authentic leader.

What is an authentic leader?

Authentic leadership is a relatively new leadership theory in the behavioural school of leadership theories. In many ways, it is largely the coming together of other leadership models. But it does put an emphasis on being true to self that differentiates it from other approaches.

Taken at face value authentic leadership could be misleading or even damaging. After all, a toxic leader can be true to himself or herself and still be a bad leader. That is why true authentic leadership is about self-awareness, not just being true to oneself. It is also why an authentic leader also displays all four of the leadership traits listed below.

Who developed authentic leadership theory?

Bill George is the name most associated with the term after publishing his book Authentic Leadership in 2003. He approached the subject from the practitioner’s point of view, making the case for responsible leadership as compared to the fake, hubristic, greedy or power-grabbing leadership he observed in various spheres of management.

The subject has gained traction in academia and Bruce J Avolio and William L Gardner are at the forefront of scholarly writing on the theory. If you read them, and other scholars’ work, you will see there is no one agreed definition of authentic leadership. There is however growing consensus around the four key qualities of an authentic leader. These are:

• Self-awareness
• Balance
• Transparency
• Morality

The four factors of authentic leadership

Here is an explanation of the four characteristics displayed by authentic leaders:

Self-awareness

An authentic leader is self-aware. Through self-inquiry, they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses. The importance of this trait can be traced back at least as far as Socrates whose basis of wisdom was:

“Know thyself.”

Socrates

An authentic leader can also show emotion and does not need to hide weakness or failure. This gives them the humanity and vulnerability that Brené Brown advocates for in her book Dare to Lead.

An authentic leader also has an informed view of how others perceive them; not just a self-image based on hubris and self-importance. This self-awareness means that a leader comes across as genuine and humble.

Self-inquiry means that an authentic leader is on a path of continual development. They have what is commonly called a growth mindset.

Balance

Balance, for the authentic leader, means balanced processing. In other words, they reflect on their decisions to balance the needs of the task, team and individual. In this way, they encompass the Action Centred leadership of John Adair.

Balance is also reflected in other aspects of a leader, such as work-life balance. Here, the metaphor of a leader watching a control panel or dashboard is a good one to keep in mind. The authentic leader is conscious of their physical, mental, spiritual, and relational gauges. They monitor their levels to make sure they do not stray into the red, or run empty, on any given dial.

Transparency

An Authentic Leader is transparent in what they do. They have clear motives, not secret agendas. This idea is closely related to the character trait of integrity: a leader is true to their values and acts in accordance with their words. This means their behaviour is easy to understand and predict.

They also have relational transparency. That does not mean they are over-familiar with colleagues and team members. They are friendly but also clear about roles, responsibilities and boundaries, and these standards are the same for everyone. They do not have a clique or inner circle with whom they act differently.

An authentic leader seeks to resolve conflict but does not shy away from difficult conversations. They do not hide failure – be that their own or their team’s – but seek to learn from mistakes and rectify problems.

Morality

An authentic leader has a strong sense of morality. They have an internalised moral perspective – an inner compass – based on the personal and social precepts that they hold to. This concept is strongly linked to self-awareness as you must know your personal values in order to live by them. The emphasis on moral tenants is similar to that of Principle-centred Leadership espoused by Stephen R Covey.

Knowing yourself and your values is unlikely to be enough for other people to follow you. This is why the concept of morality is also related to the idea of mission and the commitment to a dream that goes beyond selfish motives. An authentic leader, as with the transformational leader, communicates a vision that inspires others and seeks to bring positive change that will outlast them.

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The adventurous leader

“To thine own self be true.” Polonius, Hamlet

We made it to the top of the mountain and back again without being troubled by the bear. I got to fulfil my dream of being an explorer, of going somewhere first. In this way, I was being true to myself. I love adventure; it is part of who I am. Though I am not always off on expeditions, I make adventure part of my approach to life. I continually seek to challenge myself, remain open to new experiences and find joy from being in the outdoors.

Adventure is part of who I am. How about you? What would you say defines your personality and approach to leadership?

Self-awareness is the keystone of authentic leadership. It is the main element that differentiates it from other leadership theories. But, to be truly authentic, remember the three other elements too. Authentic leadership is being balanced, transparent and having a sense of morality. An authentic leader is committed to a higher vision, a purpose that is not just personal and a set of values that promote positivity. That is what sets aside an authentic leader from a hubristic leader who is true to self, but awful!

It might be that you have never thought about it before but what makes you authentic, not just an imitation? Take a few moments to reflect on how you would describe yourself as a manager. If you get the chance today, be brave and ask your colleagues about how they would describe you.

I know what you are thinking: leadership theory, surely that is dull and largely irrelevant? Believe me, I understand! I have always thought of myself as a practitioner rather than a theorist but, reflecting upon my journey as a leader, and having been taught various theories over the years, I can highly recommend that you read on. These leadership models can be very instructive in understanding your own leadership style, the areas where you can develop and approaches to help you improve as a manager.

To illustrate this, and hopefully give some relevance to the theories, I will share how — somewhat unexpectedly — I became a leader and then went on to develop my management skills. Leadership theory can be a very dry subject so hopefully, these stories and examples will give you an accessible introduction to each one.

Why is leadership theory important?

You do not have to know every leadership theory in detail in order to be a good leader but, through my experience and coaching other leaders, I have found that understanding a few key models really helps in developing management skills and self-awareness. The most useful theories help us to understand leadership – both our own and others – and how people influence each other. Listed below are some of the major theories that I have found most useful at a personal level.

If you would like more detail on any one of the leadership theories listed below just click on the hyperlinks and they will take you to posts with a fuller description, an expanded story and more examples.

1. Great Man theory

Great Man theory (Carlyle, 1840) is one of the oldest leadership theories and is the idea that leaders are born with the innate ability to shape history. This is a problem for most aspiring leaders if, like me, you were not born a Great Man by any means. I certainly wanted to be powerful. I wished that I could be great (or at least popular). Back then I did not aspire to be Alexander the Great or Napoleon, I did not even know who they were when I was that young; at that time my role models for leadership were superheroes.

More specifically, I wanted to be Superman. But, unfortunately, I was not gifted with superpowers from birth. Therefore I had an idea that with some rigorous training and putting myself in peril, that my burgeoning powers would be revealed. So, I undertook flying training. This involved me jumping from the stairs in my house to a chair in the hall. For every successful jump, I moved the chair further away. This progressed until a crash, a scream and a broken collarbone later, I found myself the only person in Guildford hospital in a superman costume. I recovered but did not learn immediately. I broke my collarbone a second time before giving up on the superhero training.

So much for the Great Man approach! This theory has mainly been debunked now but the important thing to remember is not to discount yourself from leadership. We may not be born to greatness but we can all achieve great things in whichever situation we find ourselves. And don’t make the wrong comparisons. Don’t assume you are powerless just because you don’t seem to have the same influence as a CEO or world leader.

2. Control and domination

Great Man theory was linked to the idea of power and that leaders could naturally dominate others by the strength of their personality and presence (Moore, 1927). This control of others was considered the natural state of affairs for a leader.

This brings us to my next disastrous attempt at leadership when I was a Cub Scout, aged about 10. By virtue of my age, as much as anything else, I was made a ‘Sixer’; a leader of six other poor Cub Scouts. Every week, on the evening the pack met, we had to line up on parade for an inspection. To achieve this, I used the threat of violence to control and dominate my six. It was a misuse of the little power I was given. Not only is this horrific it is also ridiculous. I was a very skinny boy who could hardly stand up in a stiff breeze. Any show of power was at best highly tenuous and when I look back it is all very embarrassing.

The important lesson here is that power is frequently abused, no matter what the level of responsibility. The events of the early twentieth century and the abuses of power by the likes of Hitler, Stalin and Mao were enough to make people rethink these early ideas of what makes a leader great. We need to remember these lessons if we are going to avoid misusing our influence and becoming toxic leaders.

3. Leadership traits and skills

The next step in leadership theory was studying the traits of leaders, to see what common characteristics made a good leader. In the early iterations of the theory, these traits were very much of an unachievable ideal (Galton, 1869). The idea of a leader being male, tall, good looking, charismatic, confident and outgoing held sway for some time.

Therefore, by this measure, things did not get better for me as I went from a scrawny child to a gawky teenager. If I compared myself to the leadership traits from early theories I had little to offer. I was not charismatic, confident, or attractive. I was not the sports star or the leader of any gang at school. It is almost a surprise that my leadership journey did not stop there.

The idea of innate leadership traits evolved into finding more positive characteristics such as integrity, moral courage or wisdom. It was recognised that these traits could be developed and therefore the next logical step was identifying key leadership skills, ones that could be taught. The tipping of the balance in the theory, from nature to nurture, was an important one, not least for me! Now the focus was on skills and tools that could be learned by new leaders and managers.

4. Action-centred leadership

When I went to college, for the first time in my life, I was actually taught specifically about how to be a leader. Leadership development was part of our syllabus and I can still remember the lecture where we were taught John Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership model (1979). This approach was based upon a straightforward theory you could learn and skills that you could employ.

The simple idea behind Action-Centred Leadership is that of balancing the three core management priorities of the task, team and individual. Most commonly illustrated as a Venn diagram, these three interlocking circles represent the juggling act of a leader. They must continuously seek to achieve the task, build the team and support the development of each individual.

At the time I found, that with this simple tool, I could at least start to identify what I needed to do as a leader and where perhaps I might be failing. I went from the quietest person in my year to the dizzy heights of college prefect with my newfound knowledge. I finally felt that I was developing as a leader. This is the product of having an effective tool that you can apply when learning to manage others.

5. Situational leadership theory

The next key step for me was a lesson in situational leadership. Situational leadership (Blanchard, 1985) is a model that demonstrates how you can adapt your management style depending upon the team you are working with and the environment you find yourself in. The leader chooses their approach – to delegate, support, coach or direct – as appropriate.

I have always loved the mountains and during university, I was climbing in the Alps with a few friends. There was no official leader of the group but the loudest person in the group (not me) inevitably assumed that role. But they did not need to do much as we were all competent. Once roles were delegated out we did not need coaching or even that much support. That went well until we hit a real challenge.

One day we were climbing a long route and the weather deteriorated quickly. The clouds thickened and, as we reached the summit, we found ourselves in the middle of an electric storm. The person who had been leading seemed paralysed by this turn of events. I suddenly knew what to do. It was a crisis and the team needed clear direction. Without even really thinking I took command. I outlined a quick simple plan and led the team, at pace, down the mountain to safety.

Being directive is not my usual or favourite leadership style so this experience gave me new confidence in my ability to flex my approach as a leader. I still find the situational leadership model useful when considering how best to manage a team given their experience and the circumstances.

6. Servant leadership theory

After university, I went to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. The motto of Sandhurst is, famously, ‘Serve to Lead’ and here the emphasis was on putting the mission and the team before self. This idea of ‘the servant as leader’ (or servant leadership) was developed by Robert Greenleaf (1977).

This model of servant leadership – creating an environment where people can flourish and succeed – has influenced all my leadership since. Helping others to succeed is something that motivates me, particularly in my work as a coach.

But what I like most about this model is that it turns traditional leadership (particularly the Great Man theory) on its head. Servant leadership empowers us to lead, humbly, from whatever our position or situation. For me, Mother Teresa would be an example of this sort of leadership. She had a global impact through living by this philosophy.

7. Non-directive leadership

The exposure to situational leadership and servant leadership helped me to learn that my favourite leadership style was non-directive. I liked to ask questions rather than telling people what to do. I prefer to encourage people to be creative, to work together and to share success rather than being loud and the centre of attention.

This style was well suited to bomb disposal which was my first job as an officer in the Royal Engineers. I learned to love working in small, specialist, highly motivated teams. It also set me up for the coaching and consulting work I would do more of later.

If you feel uncomfortable bossing people around then it is important to understand non-directive leadership and how you can influence people without having to shout at them. If you like bossing people around then maybe consider adding some non-directive techniques into your management style. You might be surprised by how effective they are!

8. Transactional leadership theory

I left the Regular Army and started working as a project manager on large construction projects, such as The Shard, the tallest building in London. Here I was mainly managing consultants and building contractors on the behalf of property developers. As compared to the Army, people in this job would not do what I said just because of my position. When the chips were down it was all about transactions.

As a project manager, I had to fall back on the leverage of contractual agreements and money to ensure that things got done. This, for me, was a lesson in transactional leadership (Burns, 1978). This was management using a carrot and stick approach; a functional style that relies on basic human needs such as income and job security. As such it has its uses – as I found – but the approach remains quite limited in its overall effectiveness. That is why it is often considered the poor twin of transformational leadership.

This managerial style of leadership was not one I was inspired by nor one I wanted to rely on. Having to use it was a valuable lesson but I soon realised that the construction industry was not where my heart was.

9. Transformational leadership theory

So, when I was offered the chance to be a part of a non-profit start-up I jumped at the chance. In my new role, I was responsible for the charity’s operations and this included needing to recruit, train and manage large groups of volunteers.

The largest group of volunteers that I led needed to give up one Sunday in three and work a ten-hour day. To achieve this, I had to learn about transformational leadership (Burns 1978). In other words, my leadership had to be linked to a higher cause or vision that would inspire people. My position held no real power. There was no military law, contract, or money to use as an influence. Scarily, I had to motivate the team, without these levers, for them to turn up and do the job. This was the first time I really had to think about vision and how to inspire people to be part of something.

I also learnt a lot about coaching. As the team and work grew, I had to mentor and develop new leaders to take on the extra responsibility. That is another key facet of being a transformational leader – raising up new leaders – and one that I continue through my various responsibilities, not just my work as a leadership coach.

10. Authentic leadership theory

All these experiences led me into the coaching and consulting work I do today. Here I am able to help businesses and leaders as they face their own challenges. As I reflect on the leader that I am today, I feel I am getting closer to what might be called authentic leadership (George, 2003). Being an authentic leader is primarily about self-awareness, balance, transparency and a strong sense of morality.

In my case, I am increasingly comfortable leading in a way that reflects my values, my character and the things I am passionate about. I know that I am a leader who loves adventure and challenge and I find empowering and equipping others deeply satisfying. I am also more confident to share my thoughts and experiences; including admitting when I don’t know or when I have messed up.

And that is good as we can all get complacent as leaders. The saying goes that ‘pride comes before a fall’ and that was certainly the case for me. Just when I thought I was getting this leadership thing sorted, I became a parent and realised I still had plenty of failings! So the journey continues.

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Understanding and promoting your own leadership development

So that is the journey so far. Basically, I have come a long way down the leadership path, but I have a long way to go. But that is not a problem. One theme that runs through newer leadership theories is that becoming a leader is a journey of continual learning and development. Each new day, each new challenge is an opportunity to grow.

Leadership theory is only useful if it helps us in that growth. My advice, especially if you are new to management, is to take one or two models that you can most relate to and then use them to help reflect on your leadership and the leaders that you follow or admire. Once you feel comfortable with one style, try another.

I am biased (being a leadership coach!) but having a coach or mentor can massively accelerate your development as a manager. Think about leadership as you would any other skill; if you want to get better, find someone who can help you as you set goals and practice.

You can start now. Take a few moments to reflect. Which of the leadership theories above most intrigues you? Once you have identified one then ask, what aspect of this model could you apply in the interactions you have today?

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Today you will make hundreds, maybe thousands of choices. Some of those judgements will be more important than others, but if there is one thing that I have learned, it is that we can all be better at decision-making.

I have spent years studying and teaching decision-making. This has not been a purely academic exercise either; as a leader and entrepreneur, I have had the opportunity to practice and learn from the practical application of the theory. I have not always got it right or made the best choices, but I have improved through the process.

I started this series on decision-making with a post on the things to do to make effective decisions. You can use these as a blueprint for learning how to make better choices, following each stage in turn. Here are the 10 steps:

How to Make Effective Decisions

1. Take time out
2. Identify the type of problem
3. Apply a decision-making process or model
4. Ask questions
5. Understand what matters
6. Assess factors and constraints
7. Identify assumptions
8. Consider your options
9. Think through the consequences
10. Make your choice and act upon the decision

Here is each step in more detail with the relevant links to previous posts:

Take time out

If you have a big decision to make it is worth taking some time to think about it. If you are facing an important choice, you should invest time and effort proportionate to the scale of the problem. For example, purchasing a house will require more thought than buying a coffee. So be proactive, plan in some thinking time.

My favourite way of getting quality thinking time is taking a walk, preferably in the great outdoors. Walking is not only good for making decisions as you can read about in The Surprising Power of Going for a Walk.

Identify the type of problem

When you start to think about your choice it is worth starting by classifying the sort of challenge you are facing. That is because the solution to the issue is dependent upon the sort of problem that confronts you.

There are two very helpful models to assess the sort of problem and how to deal with them. The first one was developed by Keith Grint and I explain in the post: What Sort of Problem Do I Need to Solve?

The second is the Cynefin framework, which you can read about in, The Four Main Types of Problem You Face and How to Address Them.

Apply a decision-making process or model

Decision-making is a process. Whether or not we are conscious of how we make our choice and whatever the balance of intuition and logic in our decisions, there is always an underlying structure.

One of the simplest ways of expressing this process is the OODA loop, which is explained in Top Gun Pilots and Entrepreneurs Share This Skill.

In terms of mental models to use then check out The 36 Decision-Making Models I Continually Find Most Helpful.

Ask questions

If the choice is not an obvious one, then we need to start asking some questions. Good questions lead us to the data needed to inform our decision. When asking questions, it is good to use a framework to ensure as many bases are covered as possible. One simple approach, using interrogative words, is explained in How to Ask The Right Questions from a Bomb Disposal Officer.

Understand what matters

The more I have worked as a leader and coach, the more I appreciate the importance of values in how we make decisions. Values are the moral compass that guides our choices, as I explain in Unlock Your Values to Make Better Choices.

If you want further help in working out your personal values, then read: What Are Your Personal Values?

Assess factors and constraints

Having asked questions about your situation you will be presented with data to process. These are the factors and constraints that influence your choice. But the way we process data is not necessarily as rational as we might like. Our brains use hacks, and our neurological programming has bugs. These cognitive biases can undermine quality decision-making so you need to be aware of them, as I explain in You are More Biased Than You Think.

Identify assumptions

Another beartrap to be aware of when making decisions is poor assumptions. We frequently don’t have all the information we want when making a judgement and therefore we rely on assumptions. Sometimes these assumptions are reasonable and other times they are harmful fallacies. Learn to work out which is which in How to Identify and Disarm Wrong Assumptions.

Consider your options

Having considered all the factors and avoided the pitfalls of harmful biases and wrong assumptions, the next step is thinking about the different courses of action that you can take. Most choices have multiple options and one of the challenges of decision-making is negotiating these options. There are decision-making models to help do this, but I have found that the most important thing is to first create an environment where people can think to the best of their ability. The critical elements of this thinking environment are laid down in How to Give The Gift of Generative Thinking.

Think through the consequences

Once a preferred option is identified then it is worth considering the consequences of embarking on the course of action. Before fully committing you can try and assess what the obstacles and outcomes are likely to be. Most importantly you can work out whether a decision is reversible and what is the impact of going back once a decision is made. If we fail to do this final check on our decision then we can end up in trouble, as seen in How a Heuristic Nearly Killed Me.

Make your choice and act upon the decision

Finally, we need to act. A decision is only really a decision when we take the first step. That is the first challenge as the first steps are often the hardest. The next issue is keeping going as many choices – such as big life goals or changes – requires determination to see them through. The trick here is to make a discipline of incremental progress. To do this we have to change our behaviours and we do this by building effective habits. One tried and tested way of building habits is explained in How to Build Supreme Habits and Compound Good Decisions.

Putting it all together

So, there you go. You are now equipped with the psychology, steps, and models that you need to make better choices. And as with any other skill, we improve through deliberate practice so apply the knowledge, review what you have learned, and apply those lessons to your next decision.

For reference I have created a list of these and other helpful Medium articles called Effective Decision-Making.

What choices do you need to make today? Pick one and start to work through the steps. Let me know how you do!

This article was first published on Medium.

Management guru Peter Druker reportedly said “culture eats strategy for breakfast”, but other leaders and strategists express similar sentiments. The underlying message is, it does not matter how good a plan you have, if you don’t consider the human element then your strategy is unlikely to succeed.

Having worked with numerous companies on developing a strategy it can be all too obvious when grand plans are doomed to failure. One key metric is the delta between a company’s stated values and the behaviour of the people within the organisation. But to address this gap you first need to understand the organisational culture.

Why strategy fails

A strategy is a plan of action to achieve a long-term goal. As Richard Rumelt notes in his book Good Strategy Bad Strategy, a good strategy must diagnose the challenge to overcome, create a guiding policy to address that challenge, and then produce coherent actions that ensure that the policy is carried out.

Most people get the essentials of what strategy is. Where it generally fails is in the third element, the implementation; ensuring people carry out the actions is where things go wrong. This is often because the board level strategists fail to take culture and values into consideration. Actions are just behaviours, but real change is not brought about by one single action. It is the compounding effect of multiple actions over time. If you want to shift the way you want people to act you need to change their normal routines.

Routines are just one element of organisational culture. Changing our personal habits can be difficult, so why – do leaders – expect to change a whole organisation and the habits of hundreds, if not thousands of people, just because they say so? Making this sort of transformation requires careful consideration and to make a change in behaviour you first need to understand all the facets of the culture of a given group.

The importance of understanding organisational culture

Every group of humans has a culture of some sort. Every family, company, and sports team – let alone a country or nation-state – has its own culture. The problem is when we live within these tribes the culture is so ingrained, we often don’t think about it or can struggle to express it.

Therefore, it is useful to have a model to examine and explain a culture. The Cultural Web, the tool developed by Johnson and Scholes, is a simple and effective lens to use in this context. Johnson and Scholes break down culture into six component parts: stories, symbols rituals and routines, power structures, organisational structure, and controls.

The Cultural Web

The Cultural Web comprises of the following components:

Stories

These are the past events people talk about. The shouted successes and the whispered failures. The discussions around the water cooler. These narratives carry important messages about the underlying values of a people group. The language used to express these stories – the jargon, acronyms, and lingo of a group – are just as important. Every tribe has its own dialect.

Symbols

These are not just flags, badges, and company logos. Symbols are also expressed in how people dress, office décor, even in a preferred brand of software and technology! Every item you see around you is the result of a choice influenced by a principle. For example, why have that type of coffee? Because it’s the highest quality, a trusted brand, or the best value? Understanding the decision can reveal a value judgement.

Rituals and routines

Every tribe has its own rituals and routines. The time when people start and finish work, what people do for lunch, even how (if at all) people celebrate birthdays and successes are all cultural rituals. Meetings are one fascinating way of examining culture. The routines of how a meeting is conducted, who sits where, who speaks when, and the language people use, all speak volumes about the culture and values of a group.

Organisational structure

There are always formal and informal structures in any group. Both need to be understood. An organisational chart may capture the official structure but what are the networks that exist, the webs hidden below those regimented lines? Look to see the tribes that gather; the smokers and the lunch-time runners as well as the project or function-based teams.

Power structures

Power derives from people and particularly the individuals who are decision-makers. These power structures do not always follow the official hierarchy either. For example, the personal assistant who manages access to an executive can wield power that outweighs their perceived grade in any management structure. Think: who are the internal influencers?

Controls

Controls are the systems, processes, and regulations that an organisation develops. These controls assist the conduct of work but also regulate behaviours. These can include things like financial controls, contracts, and company articles but there are also a host of unwritten rules and ways of working in any group. If you don’t think that is true, then just ask the newest member of the team about what they had to learn to be accepted into the clan.

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Culture is manifest in behaviour

Once a culture is understood you can start to identify potential levers of change. But that still does not mean it is easy, if you don’t believe me just try changing the dress regulations for any given team!

We are all creatures of habit and therefore change at any level requires overcoming inertia. We all know this. Habits can be changed but think back to the last bad habit you tried to modify. It is not easy, even when you do identify the cues, routines and rewards in a habit loop.

Therefore, even if the intellectual argument for change is compelling, there is a huge work to be undertaken once a strategy is agreed upon. As John P. Kotter shows in Leading Change, you must have leadership and a plan to take people through the change, not just set the target. To develop a plan, you need to understand the psychology of influencing groups of people and gently motivate them to act in the right way. This is the essence of nudge theory; people need subtle cues, personal incentives, and positive reinforcement to change.

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How values should be expressed to inspire action

One way to engage a whole team or organisation in the change process is through a discussion of values. Values are symbiotic with culture, as it is our shared principles and corporate beliefs that are expressed in the symbols, structures, and stories that we share in an organisation.

The problem is the behaviour of many individuals and teams are not aligned to the stated values of their organisation. This is often due to one of these three problems:

The wrong values

Sometimes a company just picks the wrong values. The values are generally not bad in themselves – virtues such as creativity, inclusivity or productivity are all good – but that does not mean they are the right values for that given group or capture the drivers for change in a strategy.

Corporate values need to express the key beliefs of that given group. They express how that team makes decisions, how they are different and most importantly why they behave that way. If you want to change the priorities of an organisation, as happens in strategy implementation, then the values need to align with that strategy.

If this is the problem – and values do not express either the current situation or strategy – then it is worth starting again, examining culture, and engaging as many team members as possible to identify the true values of the organisation and the core principles of the new strategy.

Poorly expressed values

Expressing values poorly is the next common problem. This is often the case when companies choose single virtue words to communicate their principles. Take the word creativity. I have seen creativity stated as a value for schools, legal teams, and accountancy firms, not just the obvious ones such as advertising teams, tech firms and artists.

So, if you pick a term like creativity, the question is, what does that mean within your given context? One simple way to improve the expression of a specific virtue is by coupling it with another word. Creativity could become continual creativity, collaborative creativity, playful creativity, or something else. But suddenly, with just adding one (or two) extra words that value statement becomes more personal to the group and can better express the way that value informs choices and behaviours.

Misunderstood values

And that thought on behaviours brings us nicely to the third point – misunderstood values. Even if a value is expressed succinctly it may still need further explanation to describe how that value informs the actions of that group.

Therefore, when considering corporate principles (or personal values for that matter), once the value has been identified and expressed, the next step is to define its meaning in terms of how it informs action. Every value needs a paragraph of explanation that unpacks how a value should inform the thought processes and behaviours of the team.

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Expressing organisational culture through shared values 

So, don’t let your organisational culture eat your shiny new strategy for breakfast. If you want a strategy to succeed, having a good strategic plan is not enough. You need to bring strategy, culture, and values together. To do this you must:

• Understand the organisational culture
• Identify values that align that culture with the strategy
• Explain and demonstrate how those values should be expressed in behaviour and decision-making

This may not be a quick or easy process, but it is better to go slow than to race towards the strategy car-crash that is likely to happen if you try to enforce a change without following these steps. It is a thankless task – for managers and workers alike – to have to continually prod people to change direction.

But if a company’s strategy and values are aligned, and the team behaves according to those principles, then it is like a flywheel starting to turn. It builds up momentum to a point where the positive inertia pulls the organisation towards its goal. Then, as the boss, you can stop thinking about prodding and start thinking about what new ritual you might introduce to celebrate the success of the team!

Individual, Group and Global Values Explained

I am fascinated by the concept of values and their different types; particularly how they affect our character, decision-making and leadership. The more I explore this topic and implement the lessons, the more I am convinced of the importance of understanding principles at every level, from the individual to the global.

In my own learning journey, I have discovered the impact of knowing my core values and applying that to my life choices. As a coach, I have witnessed the transformation that exploring personal values can have; seeing people gain a deeper understanding of themselves and others.  As a leader, I have seen the impact of leading authentically, by my principles, and the transformation of groups into high-performing teams, when they properly understand and behave according to their shared values.

I have also witnessed first-hand the friction when people breach universal values on the international stage and the terrible conflict that results. Now, as we live through yet another terrible war in Ukraine, it is important to reflect on what these values are and how we should respond. Not only that, there are other crises, such as environmental change – wicked problems – that require a principled approach if we are ever going to tackle them.

An overview of what values are

This specific post looks at the different levels of values and brings together the differing perspectives, paradigms, and insights that I have shared in the most recent ten articles in my Leadership Unlocked column. This post provides an overview of the topic as well as embedded hyperlinks to help you explore in more depth any area that particularly piques your interest.

The different types of values

Firstly, we should ask the question, what are values? Among other things, values are principles, standards, judgements, beliefs, and priorities. They are things we give worth, a concept that is explored in How We All Worship Something (and Why That’s Important).

Broadly, values can be categorised into three types:

• Personal values
• Corporate values
• Universal values

These different types of values tend to overlap and have some commonalities but the way these values are expressed and prioritised is often subtly different at each level. These can be visualised as overlapping spheres or ellipses, as in the diagram below.

Different typoes of values and how they overlap

Let’s look at each type of value in turn:

Personal values

Personal values are the specific combination of values that best reflect our character and preferences. For example, these could be compassion, courage, honesty, or any number of other virtues. For me, adventure and inquisitiveness are core personal values.

Finding your personal values is an important part of self-awareness. As the Greek philosophers said, the starting point of wisdom is to know thyself. Self-inquiry is the start of self-improvement, as explained in Why Socrates is the Father of Self Improvement.

Our values reflect our sense of identity. If we are not true to our values we become inauthentic – an imposter – as explored in How to Smash Imposter Syndrome: Don’t Be a Job Title.

Understanding our personal values is also important in terms of mental health and physical wellbeing. Our values help us to gauge our performance and energy levels, as seen in Burnout Prevention: How to Monitor the Essentials.

And once we find our personal values, we become better at achieving things; we align ourselves to our values to achieve our targets. In other words, to achieve your aim you need to know and apply your principles.

But it does not stop there. We need to constantly re-examine our values. We change and our situation changes. These changes can cause misalignments between ourselves and these actions. This can lead to feelings of frustration and unhappiness, as I have experienced and shared in My Mid-life Crisis and How to Re-find Happiness.

Corporate values

Corporate values are the precepts we hold in common within a family, team, organisation, or people group. These are the principles that bind a group of people together for a particular purpose.

Many organisations have statements that include values such as integrity, creativity, and collaboration. These values should be visible in the behaviour of an organisation, as explained by the Iceberg Model of culture.

If organisations don’t take their values and culture into account then things can go very wrong, especially when they are implementing change programmes, as explained in How to Stop Culture Eating Your Strategy for Breakfast.

Universal values

Universal values are core virtues that transcend individuals, organisations, and national borders. Examples of these would include those enshrined in the United Nations Charter, such as peace, freedom, equal rights, and human dignity.

We often examine values through a very personal lens, and this is important, but this can often limit our ideas of success, both in time and level of impact. Values or virtues should help us define what achievement really means. This success goes beyond just us as individuals as none of us can live a life without interacting with and influencing others. Therefore, we cannot examine values in isolation. Personal values are nothing without the context of corporate and universal values.

There can often be a difference between how we try to sell ourselves – through our CV or on social media – and what really matters when we consider the perspective of universal values. What does success actually mean in this life? The author David Brooks challenges the question “what do I want from life?” and asks another question, “what does life ask of me?” This challenging idea is explored further in What is the Difference Between Eulogy Virtues and Resume Values.

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How values can reveal your personal purpose

Here is another way to look at the three types of values (personal, corporate, and universal) intersect. This time we have three overlapping circles.

Where values overlap can give us insight to our purpose

Each of us has a unique expression of how and where these circles meet. When you have explored and understood each different sphere you should have a better idea of where and how the values overlap.

Why is that important? Well, this intersection can give us a great insight into the specific role we can play, and the special impact that we can bring to the world. We may not feel we can change the whole world, but we can certainly change our world; the environment and the community we live in. This opportunity, where our values align and can bring the greatest impact, can reveal our personal or life purpose.

So, what is that place for you?

Here are the books that I recommend the most to other people. The list reflects my favourite writings on leadership, management, work, strategy, decision-making and success in life.

I read (and listen to audible books) vociferously but these books have impacted me most and are ones that I keep re-reading, referring to and recommending to others.

You may well recognise a few but hopefully, you will find some to add to your reading list. I hope they help you as much as they have helped me!

For understanding how to be a leader and manager

The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership by John C. Maxwell is one of the best-selling leadership books of all time. One of the reasons is that it is easy to read and apply. If you are wanting to examine your strengths and weaknesses as a leader then this book is a great aid. I find that Maxwell’s definition of leadership as ‘influence’ as being one of the most useful paradigms for thinking about leadership, in all its forms.

For people who want to lead but don’t feel confident

There is little evidence to support the idea of people born to lead, but when you step into leadership (or it is thrust upon you) it can be daunting looking at all the confident looking executives that seem to be everywhere you look. The truth is, even experienced leaders can feel a lack of courage when faced with the challenges of leading authentically in an ever more challenging environment. That is why I recommend reading Dare to Lead by Brene Brown no matter where you are on your leadership journey.

For people exploring their own or their company’s purpose

The obvious choice here is Start with Why by Simon Sinek. It is an easy and pleasurable book with a simple premise: why people do things is more important to understand than just what they do.

The other book I recommend is Good to Great by Jim Collins. It is a bit dated now, especially as some of the example companies have failed to remain great since publication, but there are still some great insights in this book such as the ‘hedgehog principle’ that helps to work out an organisation’s sweet-spot for success.

For understanding business strategy

Strategy is a common word in the business (as well as military and political) lexicon, but it is very hard to get any two people to agree on a definition of strategy, let alone how to make one. Good Strategy Bad Strategy by Richard Rumelt does a great job in sifting through what is and isn’t a strategy and then outlines the building blocks of developing a good one.

For leading people through change

Leadership is all about steering people through change. Change is a constant (and therefore so is the need for leadership) but this is often forgotten, particularly in large institutions. Another common mistake is trying to implement change management without the right leadership direction. Leading Change by John P. Kotter outlines the steps of successful change leadership, based on over 25 years of experience in the field.

For those starting a new business

The Lean Startup by Eric Ries is required reading for any entrepreneur and start-up, but should also be read for those working in larger corporations. Every size of business have to deal with complexity and fast-moving change, the principles of ‘lean’ organisations and agile management are relevant to all.

For people who want to understand and build teams

In terms of identifying team roles and helping team members understand each other, I still refer to R. Meredith Belbin’s work, captured in his book Team Roles at Work. The 9 roles, identified by Belbin in his research, are a useful framework for analysing or building any team.

For people who want to develop their communication, listening and soft skills

Good communication is dependent upon people’s ability to listen effectively. It turns out that is also the case for quality thinking as well. If you want to improve your active listening skills (and other so-called soft skills such as question technique and rapport building) then I cannot recommend the works of Nancy Kline highly enough. Her insights have transformed how I coach, facilitate meetings, even the way I talk to my family. Her first book, Time To Think is a great place to start.

For people who want to understand and influence groups

Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion by Robert B. Cialdini is the go-to book on this subject. The seven principles outlined in the book provide a real insight into influence at scale. But if you are wanting to influence lots of people and their decision-making then Nudge by Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein should be on your bookshelf too.

For people who want to understand and influence individuals

If you want to understand and influence people at a one-to-one level, then I recommend the book Rapport by Emily and Laurence Alison. The Alisons are world leaders in forensic psychology and have honed a framework for building rapport through 30 years of experience in trying to effectively communicate with the most challenging of people. It has been proven with terrorists, hardened criminals…even teenagers!

For people who want to improve their presentations and public speaking

Who doesn’t enjoy and admire a good TED talk? Well, the same principles that make a viral TED talk can be used in other presentations and public speaking engagements. The TED Talks official guide to public speaking by Chris Anderson is one of the most practical books on presentation skills you will find, and the evidence for it…well just go and see another TED talk!

For people who want to communicate an idea effectively

TED talks are all about communicating one big transformative idea. If you want to know how to make that idea go viral then read Made to Stick by Chip and Dan Heath. The Heath’s give you all the ingredients for turning an idea into a great story that people will remember and want to share.

For people who want to market and sell their idea

Once you have your idea, you have crafted it, packaged it and know how to communicate it, then you are ready to sell it. Daniel H. Pink’s book, To Sell is Human, is a great compliment to the other books listed above. It is particularly helpful if (like me) you are not a natural salesperson or can’t shake the negative connotations of marketing.

For people who only want to ever read one self-help book

The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen R. Covey was the first self-help book I ever read, and I still refer back to it. There is a good reason why it is still a best-seller today, there is a lot of wisdom to be found in the book, particularly around being ‘principled centred’, a theme which echoes in Simon Sinek’s book Start with Why.

For challenging the 9-5 culture and getting work-life balance

The 4-Hour Workweek by Tim Ferriss is a provocative read. Tim Ferris uses hyperbole, over-simplification and clever marketing to get his point across, but his book is still a useful challenge to the ways we choose to work. It is always good to examine why we work the hours we do and how we can be more effective, even if we don’t want to fully buy into Ferris’ idea of the ‘new rich.’

If you are thinking of creating new ways of working within your organisation then I would also recommend Brave New Work by Aaron Dignan. Dignan gives practical advice that can help businesses function more effectively and is particularly poignant as teams seek new ways of operating in the post-pandemic world.

For understanding how decisions work

Simply put, Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman is the most influential book on decision-making in at least the last 20 years. Kahneman’s research has transformed the way we understand psychology, demonstrating the limits of human rationality, and thereby challenged a lot of traditional economics.  A must-read.

For integrating values into decision-making

If, after reading Kahneman, you want to think about how you make choices in line with your values or want to incorporate new decision-making processes into your organisation, then I recommend reading Principles by Ray Dalio. Dalio became a successful individual and built a highly successful company, by embedding his values into his decisions in life and work. He shares the principles and the approach in his book.

For people who want to be world-class in what they do

If you want to be excellent at what you do, in whatever field and with whatever skill, then it takes hard work and time. Most people are aware of the science of expertise due to Malcolm Gladwell’s bestselling book Outliers, but it is Peak by Robert Pool and Anders Ericsson that best explains the secret to success and how deliberate practise makes the difference between good and exceptional people. Both are great books but if you read one, read Peak.

For people who want to develop better habits

Achieving our goals is generally down to our behaviours. Our success in being productive, in keeping fit and healthy, in learning new skills, is all dependent upon the habits we have, be they good or bad. If you want to properly analyse the habits you have and build new (and better) ones then read The Power of Habit by Charles Duhigg.

For people who want a healthier and more balanced life

There is a ton of advice out there about daily routines and examples of people who seem to get by with little sleep. But before you try to emulate any of them read Why We Sleep by Matthew Walker. The clinical research on sleep is eye-opening (excuse the pun) and the science will inform how you construct your days and nights. I radically changed my routines as a result of this book and feel healthier and more energetic as a result.

I am always reading and updating my book lists so do let me know your favourites or what you think of my recommendations above. Happy reading!