It was turning into my worst ever Monday morning. Certainly, my worst as a project manager and probably the most miserable meeting I had endured as a leader in any context.

When meetings go wrong

I was struggling to stay focused. The meeting was a disaster, playing out like a waking nightmare to my exhausted mind. I had just flown overnight, back from the US to Europe. For the first time, I really understood what flying the ‘red-eye’ really meant. My eyes felt like sandpaper. I had consumed some coffee – three rapid-fire espressos – but my tired and rebellious body just laughed this off and went on strike.

But I could not sleep. I had flown back to be at the Monday morning meeting with the property developer. This would usually be routine but as I strained under the weight of my leaden eyelids, I found myself ambushed by a project that had gone awry while I had been away. I was the project manager and – despite the fact I had been on vacation when things had gone wrong – I was held responsible in this Kafkaesque show trial.

The blame game

Various costs, delays, and mistakes were hurled at me in a steady bombardment. It was the first time I had heard of these misadventures, but no one cared. The various contractors and consultants, who were generally the cause of said mishaps, were not going to lift their heads above the parapet in my defence.

The silence of the guilty. Their time would come.

I stayed on the ropes for two hours, absorbing each punch until the bell rang for the meeting to end. I tried to slope away afterwards, nurse my wounds, and start to consider what had just happened, but I was cut off by the lead developer. He took me around the back for a very personal verbal kicking. He questioned my character, competence and parentage.

I went from tired, to numb, to depressed, to angry. It took at least 24 hours, and some rest, to come up with a plan. I looked at each problem, identified the party who I believed was the root cause and then studied the legal obligations in their contracts. I did not hold much power, but I did hold the purse strings when it came to paying consultants. So armed with my contracts and cash flow projections I went into bat with the contractors. 48 hrs later and the project was back on track.

The project manager’s challenge

When I worked in the construction industry as a project manager it was a classic middle-man leadership position. As a project manager, I had very little actual power. What influence I did have, beyond my interpersonal skills, came down to contracts and cash.

It is not my preferred style of management, but this is where the real leverage lies in these sorts of situations. If something goes wrong, relationships will get you some of the way, but when it really gets painful it is the legal wording and the threat of non-payment that brings people to the negotiating table.

What is transactional leadership? 

Transactional leadership is the name for this type of management. It is a leadership style following behavioural leadership theory. The approach is also related to the psychology of Transactional Analysis.

This approach relies on people’s needs and a ‘give and take’ approach to keep the team on track. In this way, it is closely linked to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. The rewards and punishments reflect a trade of basic human needs. The manager barters with the team, dangling the carrot of incentives such as wages or recognition while holding the stick of contract, discipline, or expulsion to maintain cohesion.

Transactional leadership is based upon the assumption that:

“In simple terms, better pay, (are linked to) better performance, promotion, further productivity” (Bass and Avolio (1994)).

This holds true to an extent. The more enlightened factory owners in the industrial revolution realised that adequate pay, better working conditions and rest did improve productivity. By providing the basic needs of shelter, enough money for food, rest and a secure job and environment, factory owners could have happier, more productive workers. But as we shall see, this approach has its limits.

Carrot and stick

Transactional management uses both carrot and stick; rewards and punishments.

There is generally some benchmarked expectation of performance, contracted between worker and manager. Performance above this baseline of work can be rewarded, and equally, if productivity dips below the line then punishments are used to ensure compliance.

Any parent knows that there are times when this mode of leadership is needed. In the same way, there are times – when things may be less than pleasant or time-dependent – when transactional leadership may be necessary to carry through a project or phase of delivery.

The transactional approach to management is generally effective and ensuring a reasonable level of productivity but the challenge comes when you want to inspire people beyond that.

The pros and cons of transactional leadership

On the plus side, transactional leadership is a simple and fair approach and can assure a level of performance. Because it relies on basic human needs and behaviours it is broadly effective in making people work. For the aspiring manager, it is also easy to understand and implement.

But, as mentioned previously, transactional leadership rarely gets the best from anyone. Going back to the discussion of Maslow’s hierarchy, once people have their basic needs covered – such as enough food to eat, basic shelter and security – just increasing a person’s potential resources does not necessarily lead to a proportional increase in productivity.

Research has shown that monetary incentives do not necessarily improve performance. Also, if penalties are too harsh, workers will be unwilling to take risks. People won’t take risks if they are worried about their pay or job security. Fear of punishment is a poor atmosphere for creativity. To allow people to experiment (and therefore likely fail) there needs to be an environment of psychological safety.

Transactional leadership, when carried to extremes, is the tool of despots and authoritarian regimes. There may be rewards but in these cases, the threat of punishment becomes the regimes preferred means of coercion.

Therefore, it is hard to develop a high performing team with transactional leadership alone. This is why transactional leadership is usually seen as the poor cousin of transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is about inspiring the team with a vision, supporting the growth of individuals, and achieving a higher purpose rather than just getting a job done.

When to use managerial leadership

But there are times when you do just need to get the job done. You may not have the big vision, the team you would choose or the task you want, but you have to complete the project or task. At these times – as I experienced as a project manager – transactional leadership can be effective.

Transactional leadership is suitable for tame problems. These are problems that are well defined and understood. Tame problems may be complicated, but they have tried and tested solutions, even if a degree of creativity is involved. A process can therefore be applied to these types of problems and this process can then be managed towards a solution. This is why transactional leadership is also known as managerial leadership.

Basic project, programme and production management fall into this category. A product being pieced together in a factory may be complex in its composition, but all of the construction steps are pre-defined. Similarly, most buildings, even if they have a novel exterior design, are constructed in tried and tested ways. Some crisis and emergency situations can also fall into this category. If there is a known process for dealing with the issue, then the situation can be managed.

However, the managerial approach falls short when problems are wicked in nature or when creativity is needed. The highest performing teams and the most challenging problems require other leadership approaches.

Keep transactional leadership in your toolkit

I still feel slightly queasy when I remember back to that Monday car crash of a meeting. Fortunately, I was able to recover my situation with the help of transactional leadership.

Transactional leadership is not my preferred style of management but there are times when it is necessary. When things go wrong, and relationships break down, it is an approach to fall back on. Then it is important to be straight with people. Down the line, by the book, firm but fair.

So, as a leader make sure you have transactional leadership as a tool in your back pocket. And back up this contingency plan with the contracts or other levers you will need if things go wrong. But always remember: the carrot and stick approach is not as powerful as visionary, or servant leadership can be. People want a higher purpose to work for. Not just cash and contracts.

What is the hardest leadership role you have ever fulfilled? When people hear that I was a bomb disposal officer and have done multiple operational tours they naturally assume that it was in some warzone where my leadership was most tested. My leadership was certainly tested in these environments. I had to command soldiers and achieve missions but, in those early years of leadership, there was something I was lacking. That something was transformational leadership.

I only realised this when I was working for a non-profit start-up after leaving the Army. I was, among other things, employed as the Production Manager and this role meant I had to organise the set-up of all our events. Having worked on complex construction tasks as a project manager this was – in theory at least – a relatively straightforward task. But there was one major challenge.

Event management

The preparation for our major events was driven by the set-up of the stage. This was the ‘critical path’ of activity. We had to erect the frame for the lighting and set up the speakers before the band could do their soundcheck. The band required a lot of time to do a soundcheck (picture a drummer tapping a snare long enough to induce madness) and after this was done they required a long practice too. Apparently, musicians can never have enough practice.

All this meant, that when you worked back from the start time of the event, my team had to be in way earlier than everyone else because before anyone of this strutting, tuning or even setting up could take place, we had to unpack the store and move the equipment just to get to the start point. Our venue was a big West End theatre in London and Victorian-era theatres are built like rabbit warrens. Moving large equipment around required winches, mechanical lifts, and lots of shuffling, grunting and cries of “left a bit, left a bit, no LEFT!”

So, the task was complex and had a tight deadline, but it was certainly not insurmountable. I could plan each task and the time it would require. The critical nature of the task was not the challenge.

The difficult sell

The challenge came from the fact this set-up would require a large team and we – the organisation putting on the event – were a charity. We did not have the money to pay all the people needed to do this scale of work. So basically, I had to convince a bunch of volunteers to give up their free time and work for me, for nothing, and get up early (rather than have a nice lie-in) at the weekend.

A difficult sell? Well, it gets worse, because after the event, on the same day, we had to pull everything down again. This took several more hours, so by now, you are looking at a 10-12 hour working day, on your day off, for no pay. And the real kicker? We had to do this every single week throughout the year. Volunteers? Anybody?

But the amazing thing was, we pulled it off. In the process, I learned a lot about the true meaning of transformational leadership.

From transactional to transformational leadership

I already had a good knowledge of transactional leadership. This leadership style was one that I employed a lot as a project manager. Transactional leadership plays to the needs of individuals, using rewards, and where necessary disincentives or punishments, to ensure performance and the achievement of a goal. The approach plays on our basic needs, as per Maslow’s hierarchy, to ensure compliance.

Transformational leadership, by contrast, goes beyond just self-interest. It seeks to draw people to the highest point on the Maslow triangle – that of self-actualisation. To achieve this the transformational leader needs to inspire their team with a vision. This vision is so compelling that it encourages people to stretch themselves as individuals, to come together as a team, and to work together for long-lasting change.

Who developed transformational leadership theory?

The term transformational leadership was first coined by James Downton (author of Rebel Leadership) who conducted research on charismatic leaders. But the early theory was refined by James MacGregor Burns (1978) who differentiated leadership styles as either transactional or transformational. Burns used the lens of political leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr, to explore the idea of those who led positive social change. This positive change was one of the key hallmarks of transformational leadership.

“In real life, the most practical advice for leaders is not to treat pawns like pawns, nor princes like princes, but all persons like persons.”

James MacGregor Burns

Bernard M Bass helped to further popularise the concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (1985). He has continued his research and published a large number of influential research papers on the topic since then. Bass added to previous research by working out how the influence of a leader, and their degree of transformational effect, can be measured.

Charismatic vs transformational leaders

Bernard Bass also helped to define the difference between charismatic and transformational leadership. Charisma plays an important role in transformational leadership as it is the means by which a leader communicates vision and inspires people.

“Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often more than they originally thought possible.”

Bernard M Bass

But charisma without social conscience can lead to negative extremes of leadership, as displayed by the likes of Hitler or Osama Bin Laden. The authentic transformational leader is not seeking to exploit others. They transcend their own personal interest for the sake of a larger, positive vision of the future. They also have the best interests of their followers at heart. These differences can be best seen in the four core components of transformational leadership.

The four key components of transformational leadership

The four components of transformational leadership are:

• Idealised Influence
• Inspirational Motivation
• Intellectual Stimulation
• Individualised Consideration

Idealised Influence 

The transformational leader creates idealised influence through being a positive role model to their followers. Their behaviour inspires others to higher standards of conduct. A transformational leader also demonstrates the willingness to take risks and displays confidence in overcoming obstacles.

Going back to my experience as a Production Manager the most important element of idealised influence for me was remaining calm. As a team we were always under time pressure and, more likely than not, we would face some issue or another on any given day. Remaining calm in the face of adversity helped everyone else to ‘keep calm and carry on,’ as the saying goes.

I also tried to set the example of work ethic. To do this, for this scenario, it was important that I was first to arrive and the last to leave. I got stuck in with the manual work and would take on the most difficult or unpleasant tasks if we were short-handed as a team. A good sense of humour also went a long way in setting the tone for the team. It was important that we had fun alongside working hard.

Inspirational Motivation 

Inspirational motivation goes beyond just leading from the front. This comes from effectively communicating a vision that brings meaning to the work of the team. The vision has to be compelling enough to capture people’s hearts and challenging enough to stretch people’s minds.

“The leader articulates a compelling vision of the future.”

Bernard M Bass

For us, the work we were doing, setting up events, was part of the much bigger picture. The organisation we were part of was committed to helping transform London.

London is an amazing place. It is a cultural geezer, a well-spring of politics, art and business. But hidden beneath the glare of the lights and smothered beneath the noise there is a lot of brokenness. Therefore, the vision was to build a community, in central London, to serve the city and see it renewed at every level.  It was a family of artists, accountants, musicians, bankers, teachers, emergency services workers – and everything in between – who wanted to inspire people to be better. Lawyers who wanted to see real justice, financiers who wanted to alleviate poverty and business leaders who did not measure success just by profit.

It was incredibly exciting. I bought into that vision. I moved house and changed career to be a part of it. And, even though I was not the original dreamer of the dream, once I had captured the vision, I wanted to share it.

So, my job as a leader was to connect the job we were doing to that larger vision and that is what we did at the start of every set-up. We gathered as a team to pray and remind each other of why we were giving up our weekends. There was no way I could have persuaded the teams to give up their time willingly if they did not buy into the mission.

Intellectual Stimulation

A transformational leader needs to provide intellectual stimulation to individuals in their team. This can be done by setting challenging goals, but perhaps more importantly, by encouraging creativity and allowing people to take risks.

Manual labour – which is effectively what we were doing – did not seem to lend itself to creativity but there even I was surprised. Given the opportunity, the team brought innovative solutions to every part of what we did. Whether it was new storage solutions or ethical sourcing of products, each team member was able to bring ideas to improve our work.

One simple idea that came from team members was eating together during the soundcheck. There was a slack time for us while this was going on and eating together brought social bonds beyond which we would have gained in just working alongside each other. Many deeper, long-term friendships were born out of these shared lunches. It taught me that any creative idea, no matter how small, can bring huge rewards if you are willing to experiment and try things out.

Individualised Consideration

A truly transformational leader gives special attention to every individual in their team. This is what is meant by individualised consideration. A good leader is always looking for learning and then supports the team member through their growth. As Bass puts it:

“The leader is individually considerate, providing the follower with support, mentoring and coaching“

Transformational leaders also work to turn their followers into leaders. They empower individuals, set challenges, and help people to change expectations of what they can achieve.

As Production Manager, my long-term goal was to do myself out of a role. I wanted to raise up new leaders to take over my position. The organisation was growing rapidly so there were plenty of other challenges for me to take on. Equally, if I failed to raise up new leaders, I would stymy the expansion of the organisation as a whole. Therefore, I systematically coached and mentored my team leaders. They all developed into excellent leaders and one of them did indeed go on to take over from me. It has been a great pleasure to see each of these leaders go on to success in their professional work in the subsequent years. Being part of their development journey, even in a small way, was a real privilege.

Transforming your approach to leadership

Transformational leadership is a term often used but much less frequently understood. A true, authentic transformational leader is known by the following traits: they are a positive role model; they communicate a compelling vision; they embrace creativity and develop their followers into the leaders of the future.

It took a very different leadership challenge, that of leading volunteers, for me to fully grasp these lessons, but once learned I have not forgotten them since. In my subsequent jobs, I have continued to measure myself against these four key areas. That process of examining my practice against the standard for transformational leadership has changed me, as a leader and manager, for the better.

How about you? Would you describe yourself as a transformational leader? We can all find areas for improvement. Which area do you most need to work on? Why not take a couple of minutes now to think about what you can do today to develop your leadership. You might surprise yourself – the results can be transformational!

I stopped and stared at the footprint. It was about the size of a dinner plate and as far as I was concerned it was not supposed to be there. Unfortunately, no matter how long I stared at it, the print would not disappear from the otherwise pristine snow. It was undoubtedly a polar bear footprint, but I had assumed no bear would come this far up into the mountains. The evidence in front of me told me I was wrong. The problem was I had planned against this false assumption and decided, that to save weight, I would not carry my rifle and ammunition with me when we scaled the mountain. A rifle is not a usual bit of mountaineering equipment but when you are in a remote location in Greenland it is better to carry a rifle than to become a hungry bear’s mid-morning snack.

Gazing at the footprint reminded me of a joke. Two guys are camping, and a bear appears and starts growling. The first guy immediately opens his rucksack and starts to put on his training shoes. The second guy says “Your crazy! You can’t outrun a bear!” The first guy replies, “I don’t have to outrun the bear, I just have to outrun you.”

My climbing partner asked me why I was smiling.

Exit pursued by a bear

It would have been somewhat insensitive to share what I had been thinking. I probably could outrun my climbing partner but, considering she was also my wife, I was not going to point this out. If I did, I would have not remained alive, or married, long enough to do anything.

I pushed the distracting thoughts away and considered our options. We could head back to the tent for the rifle – which would take at least an hour – or continue up the mountain. I figured that if the polar bear was still around then the traverse back to the campsite would be the most likely way to meet it. Therefore, we choose to continue up the mountain. Hopefully, by the time we were done, the bear would have moved on, heading back to the glacier for some tasty seal, rather than following us any higher.

I hoped.

The pursuit of adventure

I have always loved adventure. As a kid, I dreamed of being Indiana Jones or MacGyver and would roam the woods with my Swiss Army knife practising my skills. Some of these dreams I turned into reality. I went on expeditions to the jungles of Central America to look for archaeological remains and went on to train as a bomb disposal officer.

I also dreamed of being an explorer and doing a real ‘first’. That led me to become a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and researching the few bits of virgin territory left in the world. Through this study, I became attracted to Greenland as a place where there were still mountains that had no recorded first ascents or descents, particularly on skis, which is the method I was hoping to use. The mountains in Greenland are not particularly tall or necessarily technical, so they did not hold the allure for all mountaineers, but they suited me just fine. They were remote, untouched, and ripe for scaling.

That idea had led to this expedition, to this climb and this moment of decision regarding the bear. Making choices about avoiding bears is not every leader’s day-to-day but it reflected who I am. Being adventurous was part of my true self; a facet of me as an authentic leader.

What is an authentic leader?

Authentic leadership is a relatively new leadership theory in the behavioural school of leadership theories. In many ways, it is largely the coming together of other leadership models. But it does put an emphasis on being true to self that differentiates it from other approaches.

Taken at face value authentic leadership could be misleading or even damaging. After all, a toxic leader can be true to himself or herself and still be a bad leader. That is why true authentic leadership is about self-awareness, not just being true to self. It is also why an authentic leader also displays all four of the leadership traits listed below.

Who developed authentic leadership theory?

Bill George is the name most associated with the term after publishing his book Authentic Leadership in 2003. He approached the subject from the practitioner point of view, making the case for responsible leadership as compared to the fake, hubristic, greedy or power-grabbing leadership that he observed in various spheres of management.

The subject has gained traction in academia and Bruce J Avolio and William L Gardner are at the forefront of scholarly writing on the theory. If you read them, and other scholars work, you will see there is no one agreed definition of authentic leadership. There is however growing consensus around the four key qualities of an authentic leader. These are:

• Self-awareness
• Balance
• Transparency
• Morality

The four factors of authentic leadership

Here is an explanation of the four characteristics displayed by authentic leaders:

Self-awareness

An authentic leader is self-aware. Through self-inquiry, they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses. The importance of this trait can be traced back at least as far as Socrates whose basis of wisdom was:

“Know thyself.”

Socrates

An authentic leader can also show emotion and does not need to hide weakness or failure. This gives them the humanity and vulnerability that Brené Brown advocates for in her book Dare to Lead.

An authentic leader also has an informed view of how others perceive them; not just a self-image based on hubris and self-importance. This self-awareness means that a leader comes across as genuine and humble.

Self-inquiry means that an authentic leader is on a path of continual development. They have what is commonly called a growth mindset.

Balance

Balance, for the authentic leader, means balanced processing. In other words, they reflect on their decisions to balance the needs of the task, team and individual. In this way, they encompass the Action Centred leadership of John Adair.

Balance is also reflected in other aspects of a leader, such as work-life balance. Here, the metaphor of a leader watching a control panel or dashboard is a good one to keep in mind. The authentic leader is conscious of their physical, mental, spiritual, and relational gauges. They monitor their levels to make sure they do not stray into the red, or run empty, on any given dial.

Transparency

An authentic leader is transparent in what they do. They have clear motives, not secret agendas. This idea is closely related to the character trait of integrity: a leader is true to their values and acts in accordance with their words. This means their behaviour is easy to understand and predict.

They also have relational transparency. That does not mean they are over-familiar with colleagues and team members. They are friendly but also clear about roles, responsibilities and boundaries, and these standards are the same for everyone. They do not have a clique or inner circle with whom they act differently.

An authentic leader seeks to resolve conflict but does not shy away from difficult conversations. They do not hide failure – be that their own or their team’s – but seek to learn from mistakes and rectify problems.

Morality

An authentic leader has a strong sense of morality. They have an internalised moral perspective – an inner compass – based on the personal and social precepts that they hold to. This concept is strongly linked to self-awareness as you must know your personal values in order to live by them. The emphasis on moral tenants is similar to that of Principle-centred Leadership espoused by Stephen R Covey.

Knowing yourself and your values is unlikely to be enough for other people to follow you. This is why the concept of morality is also related to the idea of mission and the commitment to a dream that goes beyond selfish motives. An authentic leader, as with the transformational leader, communicates a vision that inspires others and seeks to bring positive change that will outlast them.

The adventurous leader

“To thine own self be true.” Polonius, Hamlet

We made it to the top of the mountain, and back again, without being troubled by the bear. I got to fulfil my dream of being an explorer, of going somewhere first. In this way, I was being true to myself. I love adventure; it is part of who I am. I am not always off on expeditions, but I make adventure part of my approach to life. I continually seek to challenge myself, remain open to new experiences and find joy from being in the outdoors.

Adventure is part of who I am. How about you? What would you say defines your personality and approach to leadership?

Self-awareness is the keystone of authentic leadership. It is the main element that differentiates it from other leadership theories. But, to be truly authentic, remember the three other elements too. Authentic leadership is being balanced, transparent and having a sense of morality. An authentic leader is committed to a higher vision, a purpose that is not just personal and a set of values that promote positivity. That is what sets aside an authentic leader from a hubristic leader who is true to self, but awful!

It might be that you have never thought about it before but what makes you authentic, not just an imitation? Take a few moments to reflect on how you would describe yourself as a manager. If you get the chance today, be brave and ask your colleagues about how they would describe you.

I know what you are thinking: leadership theory, surely that is dull and largely irrelevant? Believe me, I understand! I have always thought of myself as a practitioner rather than a theorist but, reflecting upon my journey as a leader, and having been taught various theories over the years, I can highly recommend that you read on. These leadership models can be very instructive in understanding your own leadership style, the areas where you can develop and approaches to help you improve as a manager.

To illustrate this, and hopefully give some relevance to the theories, I will share how — somewhat unexpectedly — I became a leader and then went on to develop my management skills. Leadership theory can be a very dry subject so hopefully, these stories and examples will give you an accessible introduction to each one.

Why is leadership theory important?

You do not have to know every leadership theory in detail in order to be a good leader but, through my experience and coaching other leaders, I have found that understanding a few key models really helps in developing management skills and self-awareness. The most useful theories help us to understand leadership – both our own and others – and how people influence each other. Listed below are some of the major theories that I have found most useful at a personal level.

If you would like more detail on any one of the leadership theories listed below just click on the hyperlinks and they will take you to posts with a fuller description, an expanded story and more examples.

1. Great Man theory

Great Man theory (Carlyle, 1840) is one of the oldest leadership theories and is the idea that leaders are born with the innate ability to shape history. This is a problem for most aspiring leaders if, like me, you were not born a Great Man by any means. I certainly wanted to be powerful. I wished that I could be great (or at least popular). Back then I did not aspire to be Alexander the Great or Napoleon, I did not even know who they were when I was that young; at that time my role models for leadership were superheroes.

More specifically, I wanted to be Superman. But, unfortunately, I was not gifted with superpowers from birth. Therefore I had an idea that with some rigorous training and putting myself in peril, that my burgeoning powers would be revealed. So, I undertook flying training. This involved me jumping from the stairs in my house to a chair in the hall. For every successful jump, I moved the chair further away. This progressed until a crash, a scream and a broken collarbone later, I found myself the only person in Guildford hospital in a superman costume. I recovered but did not learn immediately. I broke my collarbone a second time before giving up on the superhero training.

So much for the Great Man approach! This theory has mainly been debunked now but the important thing to remember is not to discount yourself from leadership. We may not be born to greatness but we can all achieve great things in whichever situation we find ourselves. And don’t make the wrong comparisons. Don’t assume you are powerless just because you don’t seem to have the same influence as a CEO or world leader.

2. Control and domination

Great Man theory was linked to the idea of power and that leaders could naturally dominate others by the strength of their personality and presence (Moore, 1927). This control of others was considered the natural state of affairs for a leader.

This brings us to my next disastrous attempt at leadership when I was a Cub Scout, aged about 10. By virtue of my age, as much as anything else, I was made a ‘Sixer’; a leader of six other poor Cub Scouts. Every week, on the evening the pack met, we had to line up on parade for an inspection. To achieve this, I used the threat of violence to control and dominate my six. It was a misuse of the little power I was given. Not only is this horrific it is also ridiculous. I was a very skinny boy who could hardly stand up in a stiff breeze. Any show of power was at best highly tenuous and when I look back it is all very embarrassing.

The important lesson here is that power is frequently abused, no matter what the level of responsibility. The events of the early twentieth century and the abuses of power by the likes of Hitler, Stalin and Mao were enough to make people rethink these early ideas of what makes a leader great. We need to remember these lessons if we are going to avoid misusing our influence and becoming toxic leaders.

3. Leadership traits and skills

The next step in leadership theory was studying the traits of leaders, to see what common characteristics made a good leader. In the early iterations of the theory, these traits were very much of an unachievable ideal (Galton, 1869). The idea of a leader being male, tall, good looking, charismatic, confident and outgoing held sway for some time.

Therefore, by this measure, things did not get better for me as I went from a scrawny child to a gawky teenager. If I compared myself to the leadership traits from early theories I had little to offer. I was not charismatic, confident, or attractive. I was not the sports star or the leader of any gang at school. It is almost a surprise that my leadership journey did not stop there.

The idea of innate leadership traits evolved into finding more positive characteristics such as integrity, moral courage or wisdom. It was recognised that these traits could be developed and therefore the next logical step was identifying key leadership skills, ones that could be taught. The tipping of the balance in the theory, from nature to nurture, was an important one, not least for me! Now the focus was on skills and tools that could be learned by new leaders and managers.

4. Action-centred leadership

When I went to college, for the first time in my life, I was actually taught specifically about how to be a leader. Leadership development was part of our syllabus and I can still remember the lecture where we were taught John Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership model (1979). This approach was based upon a straightforward theory you could learn and skills that you could employ.

The simple idea behind Action-Centred Leadership is that of balancing the three core management priorities of the task, team and individual. Most commonly illustrated as a Venn diagram, these three interlocking circles represent the juggling act of a leader. They must continuously seek to achieve the task, build the team and support the development of each individual.

At the time I found, that with this simple tool, I could at least start to identify what I needed to do as a leader and where perhaps I might be failing. I went from the quietest person in my year to the dizzy heights of college prefect with my newfound knowledge. I finally felt that I was developing as a leader. This is the product of having an effective tool that you can apply when learning to manage others.

5. Situational leadership theory

The next key step for me was a lesson in situational leadership. Situational leadership (Blanchard, 1985) is a model that demonstrates how you can adapt your management style depending upon the team you are working with and the environment you find yourself in. The leader chooses their approach – to delegate, support, coach or direct – as appropriate.

I have always loved the mountains and during university, I was climbing in the Alps with a few friends. There was no official leader of the group but the loudest person in the group (not me) inevitably assumed that role. But they did not need to do much as we were all competent. Once roles were delegated out we did not need coaching or even that much support. That went well until we hit a real challenge.

One day we were climbing a long route and the weather deteriorated quickly. The clouds thickened and, as we reached the summit, we found ourselves in the middle of an electric storm. The person who had been leading seemed paralysed by this turn of events. I suddenly knew what to do. It was a crisis and the team needed clear direction. Without even really thinking I took command. I outlined a quick simple plan and led the team, at pace, down the mountain to safety.

Being directive is not my usual or favourite leadership style so this experience gave me new confidence in my ability to flex my approach as a leader. I still find the situational leadership model useful when considering how best to manage a team given their experience and the circumstances.

6. Servant leadership theory

After university, I went to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. The motto of Sandhurst is, famously, ‘Serve to Lead’ and here the emphasis was on putting the mission and the team before self. This idea of ‘the servant as leader’ (or servant leadership) was developed by Robert Greenleaf (1977).

This model of servant leadership – creating an environment where people can flourish and succeed – has influenced all my leadership since. Helping others to succeed is something that motivates me, particularly in my work as a coach.

But what I like most about this model is that it turns traditional leadership (particularly the Great Man theory) on its head. Servant leadership empowers us to lead, humbly, from whatever our position or situation. For me, Mother Teresa would be an example of this sort of leadership. She had a global impact through living by this philosophy.

7. Non-directive leadership

The exposure to situational leadership and servant leadership helped me to learn that my favourite leadership style was non-directive. I liked to ask questions rather than telling people what to do. I prefer to encourage people to be creative, to work together and to share success rather than being loud and the centre of attention.

This style was well suited to bomb disposal which was my first job as an officer in the Royal Engineers. I learned to love working in small, specialist, highly motivated teams. It also set me up for the coaching and consulting work I would do more of later.

If you feel uncomfortable bossing people around then it is important to understand non-directive leadership and how you can influence people without having to shout at them. If you like bossing people around then maybe consider adding some non-directive techniques into your management style. You might be surprised by how effective they are!

8. Transactional leadership theory

I left the Regular Army and started working as a project manager on large construction projects, such as The Shard, the tallest building in London. Here I was mainly managing consultants and building contractors on the behalf of property developers. As compared to the Army, people in this job would not do what I said just because of my position. When the chips were down it was all about transactions.

As a project manager, I had to fall back on the leverage of contractual agreements and money to ensure that things got done. This, for me, was a lesson in transactional leadership (Burns, 1978). This was management using a carrot and stick approach; a functional style that relies on basic human needs such as income and job security. As such it has its uses – as I found – but the approach remains quite limited in its overall effectiveness. That is why it is often considered the poor twin of transformational leadership.

This managerial style of leadership was not one I was inspired by nor one I wanted to rely on. Having to use it was a valuable lesson but I soon realised that the construction industry was not where my heart was.

9. Transformational leadership theory

So, when I was offered the chance to be a part of a non-profit start-up I jumped at the chance. In my new role, I was responsible for the charity’s operations and this included needing to recruit, train and manage large groups of volunteers.

The largest group of volunteers that I led needed to give up one Sunday in three and work a ten-hour day. To achieve this, I had to learn about transformational leadership (Burns 1978). In other words, my leadership had to be linked to a higher cause or vision that would inspire people. My position held no real power. There was no military law, contract, or money to use as an influence. Scarily, I had to motivate the team, without these levers, for them to turn up and do the job. This was the first time I really had to think about vision and how to inspire people to be part of something.

I also learnt a lot about coaching. As the team and work grew, I had to mentor and develop new leaders to take on the extra responsibility. That is another key facet of being a transformational leader – raising up new leaders – and one that I continue through my various responsibilities, not just my work as a leadership coach.

10. Authentic leadership theory

All these experiences led me into the coaching and consulting work I do today. Here I am able to help businesses and leaders as they face their own challenges. As I reflect on the leader that I am today, I feel I am getting closer to what might be called authentic leadership (George, 2003). Being an authentic leader is primarily about self-awareness, balance, transparency and a strong sense of morality.

In my case, I am increasingly comfortable leading in a way that reflects my values, my character and the things I am passionate about. I know that I am a leader who loves adventure and challenge and I find empowering and equipping others deeply satisfying. I am also more confident to share my thoughts and experiences; including admitting when I don’t know or when I have messed up.

And that is good as we can all get complacent as leaders. The saying goes that ‘pride comes before a fall’ and that was certainly the case for me. Just when I thought I was getting this leadership thing sorted, I became a parent and realised I still had plenty of failings! So the journey continues.

Understanding and promoting your own leadership development

So that is the journey so far. Basically, I have come a long way down the leadership path, but I have a long way to go. But that is not a problem. One theme that runs through newer leadership theories is that becoming a leader is a journey of continual learning and development. Each new day, each new challenge is an opportunity to grow.

Leadership theory is only useful if it helps us in that growth. My advice, especially if you are new to management, is to take one or two models that you can most relate to and then use them to help reflect on your leadership and the leaders that you follow or admire. Once you feel comfortable with one style, try another.

I am biased (being a leadership coach!) but having a coach or mentor can massively accelerate your development as a manager. Think about leadership as you would any other skill; if you want to get better, find someone who can help you as you set goals and practice.

You can start now. Take a few moments to reflect. Which of the leadership theories above most intrigues you? Once you have identified one then ask, what aspect of this model could you apply in the interactions you have today?

Here are the books that I recommend the most to other people. The list reflects my favourite writings on leadership, management, work, strategy, decision-making and success in life.

I read (and listen to audible books) vociferously but these books have impacted me most and are ones that I keep re-reading, referring to and recommending to others.

You may well recognise a few but hopefully, you will find some to add to your reading list. I hope they help you as much as they have helped me!

For understanding how to be a leader and manager

The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership by John C. Maxwell is one of the best-selling leadership books of all time. One of the reasons is that it is easy to read and apply. If you are wanting to examine your strengths and weaknesses as a leader then this book is a great aid. I find that Maxwell’s definition of leadership as ‘influence’ as being one of the most useful paradigms for thinking about leadership, in all its forms.

For people who want to lead but don’t feel confident

There is little evidence to support the idea of people born to lead, but when you step into leadership (or it is thrust upon you) it can be daunting looking at all the confident looking executives that seem to be everywhere you look. The truth is, even experienced leaders can feel a lack of courage when faced with the challenges of leading authentically in an ever more challenging environment. That is why I recommend reading Dare to Lead by Brene Brown no matter where you are on your leadership journey.

For people exploring their own or their company’s purpose

The obvious choice here is Start with Why by Simon Sinek. It is an easy and pleasurable book with a simple premise: why people do things is more important to understand than just what they do.

The other book I recommend is Good to Great by Jim Collins. It is a bit dated now, especially as some of the example companies have failed to remain great since publication, but there are still some great insights in this book such as the ‘hedgehog principle’ that helps to work out an organisation’s sweet-spot for success.

For understanding business strategy

Strategy is a common word in the business (as well as military and political) lexicon, but it is very hard to get any two people to agree on a definition of strategy, let alone how to make one. Good Strategy Bad Strategy by Richard Rumelt does a great job in sifting through what is and isn’t a strategy and then outlines the building blocks of developing a good one.

For leading people through change

Leadership is all about steering people through change. Change is a constant (and therefore so is the need for leadership) but this is often forgotten, particularly in large institutions. Another common mistake is trying to implement change management without the right leadership direction. Leading Change by John P. Kotter outlines the steps of successful change leadership, based on over 25 years of experience in the field.

For those starting a new business

The Lean Startup by Eric Ries is required reading for any entrepreneur and start-up, but should also be read for those working in larger corporations. Every size of business have to deal with complexity and fast-moving change, the principles of ‘lean’ organisations and agile management are relevant to all.

For people who want to understand and build teams

In terms of identifying team roles and helping team members understand each other, I still refer to R. Meredith Belbin’s work, captured in his book Team Roles at Work. The 9 roles, identified by Belbin in his research, are a useful framework for analysing or building any team.

For people who want to develop their communication, listening and soft skills

Good communication is dependent upon people’s ability to listen effectively. It turns out that is also the case for quality thinking as well. If you want to improve your active listening skills (and other so-called soft skills such as question technique and rapport building) then I cannot recommend the works of Nancy Kline highly enough. Her insights have transformed how I coach, facilitate meetings, even the way I talk to my family. Her first book, Time To Think is a great place to start.

For people who want to understand and influence groups

Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion by Robert B. Cialdini is the go-to book on this subject. The seven principles outlined in the book provide a real insight into influence at scale. But if you are wanting to influence lots of people and their decision-making then Nudge by Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein should be on your bookshelf too.

For people who want to understand and influence individuals

If you want to understand and influence people at a one-to-one level, then I recommend the book Rapport by Emily and Laurence Alison. The Alisons are world leaders in forensic psychology and have honed a framework for building rapport through 30 years of experience in trying to effectively communicate with the most challenging of people. It has been proven with terrorists, hardened criminals…even teenagers!

For people who want to improve their presentations and public speaking

Who doesn’t enjoy and admire a good TED talk? Well, the same principles that make a viral TED talk can be used in other presentations and public speaking engagements. The TED Talks official guide to public speaking by Chris Anderson is one of the most practical books on presentation skills you will find, and the evidence for it…well just go and see another TED talk!

For people who want to communicate an idea effectively

TED talks are all about communicating one big transformative idea. If you want to know how to make that idea go viral then read Made to Stick by Chip and Dan Heath. The Heath’s give you all the ingredients for turning an idea into a great story that people will remember and want to share.

For people who want to market and sell their idea

Once you have your idea, you have crafted it, packaged it and know how to communicate it, then you are ready to sell it. Daniel H. Pink’s book, To Sell is Human, is a great compliment to the other books listed above. It is particularly helpful if (like me) you are not a natural salesperson or can’t shake the negative connotations of marketing.

For people who only want to ever read one self-help book

The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen R. Covey was the first self-help book I ever read, and I still refer back to it. There is a good reason why it is still a best-seller today, there is a lot of wisdom to be found in the book, particularly around being ‘principled centred’, a theme which echoes in Simon Sinek’s book Start with Why.

For challenging the 9-5 culture and getting work-life balance

The 4-Hour Workweek by Tim Ferriss is a provocative read. Tim Ferris uses hyperbole, over-simplification and clever marketing to get his point across, but his book is still a useful challenge to the ways we choose to work. It is always good to examine why we work the hours we do and how we can be more effective, even if we don’t want to fully buy into Ferris’ idea of the ‘new rich.’

If you are thinking of creating new ways of working within your organisation then I would also recommend Brave New Work by Aaron Dignan. Dignan gives practical advice that can help businesses function more effectively and is particularly poignant as teams seek new ways of operating in the post-pandemic world.

For understanding how decisions work

Simply put, Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman is the most influential book on decision-making in at least the last 20 years. Kahneman’s research has transformed the way we understand psychology, demonstrating the limits of human rationality, and thereby challenged a lot of traditional economics.  A must-read.

For integrating values into decision-making

If, after reading Kahneman, you want to think about how you make choices in line with your values or want to incorporate new decision-making processes into your organisation, then I recommend reading Principles by Ray Dalio. Dalio became a successful individual and built a highly successful company, by embedding his values into his decisions in life and work. He shares the principles and the approach in his book.

For people who want to be world-class in what they do

If you want to be excellent at what you do, in whatever field and with whatever skill, then it takes hard work and time. Most people are aware of the science of expertise due to Malcolm Gladwell’s bestselling book Outliers, but it is Peak by Robert Pool and Anders Ericsson that best explains the secret to success and how deliberate practise makes the difference between good and exceptional people. Both are great books but if you read one, read Peak.

For people who want to develop better habits

Achieving our goals is generally down to our behaviours. Our success in being productive, in keeping fit and healthy, in learning new skills, is all dependent upon the habits we have, be they good or bad. If you want to properly analyse the habits you have and build new (and better) ones then read The Power of Habit by Charles Duhigg.

For people who want a healthier and more balanced life

There is a ton of advice out there about daily routines and examples of people who seem to get by with little sleep. But before you try to emulate any of them read Why We Sleep by Matthew Walker. The clinical research on sleep is eye-opening (excuse the pun) and the science will inform how you construct your days and nights. I radically changed my routines as a result of this book and feel healthier and more energetic as a result.

I am always reading and updating my book lists so do let me know your favourites or what you think of my recommendations above. Happy reading!

Here is a short introduction to some of the most important leadership theories, trends, and models. These can all be instructive in understanding your own leadership style, broadening your expertise, and giving you tools to improve as a manager.

Great-man theory

Great Man theory (1840) is one of the oldest leadership theories. It is the idea that true leaders – or heroes – are born with the innate ability to shape history. Thomas Carlyle was a historian, and he came up with the theory based on the examples of key historical figures such as Napoleon Bonaparte.

However, this premise – that leaders are born not made – has largely been refuted. The main importance of this theory is that it reveals how we have traditionally seen leaders. Carlyle’s also work gave impetus to the study of leadership and the development of further leadership theories.

Control and domination, power, and influence

Great Man theory was linked to the idea of power and that leaders would naturally dominate others by the strength of their personality. This school of leadership theory is summed up in Moore’s definition of leadership from 1927:

“The ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and induce obedience, respect, loyalty and cooperation.”

B.V. Moore at the May conference on leadership (1927)

The point to note here is that there is no reference to the responsibility a leader has for their followers or to any moral code. It took the extreme abuses of power, by the likes of Hitler, Mao, and Stalin in the first half of the twentieth century, for these ideas of leadership to be properly challenged.

Leadership traits and skills

Academics also started to identify the traits of leaders, to see what common characteristics made a good leader. In the early iterations of the theory, these traits were seen as inherited and linked to the idea of the Great Man, the charismatic male hero, who was tall and good-looking (Galton, 1869).

This school of thinking evolved into identifying more positive traits such as integrity, moral courage, and humility. Importantly there was also a shift towards characteristics that could be developed. As the emphasis moved from innate to acquired characteristics, the focus moved to identify leadership skills and behaviours that could be learned, such as communication, strategic thinking and decision-making.

Action-centred leadership

John Adair’s Action-Centred Leadership model (1979) was built on the premise that leadership skills and behaviours could be taught and adopted.

The simple idea behind Action-Centred Leadership is the need to balance the three core management priorities of task, team and individual. A good leader must continuously seek to achieve the task, build the team, and support the development of each individual.

Transactional and transformational leadership theories

James MacGregor Burns took the ideas of influence and behaviour in another direction when he defined the difference between Transactional and Transformational leadership (1978).

Transactional leadership is management using a carrot and stick approach. This functional style relies on basic human needs such as income and job security. These elements are related to the lower end of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Transformational leadership goes beyond transactional leadership. This type of leader seeks to inspire people with a compelling vision, and lead them to self-actualisation, at the top of the Maslow pyramid. Bernard Bass (1985) built on the work of Burns and defined the key behaviours of the transformational leader as being:

• a positive role model,
• providing encouragement and
• supporting followers to fulfil their potential.

Situational leadership theory (flexible leadership)

The Situational leadership model, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, (1985) took leadership theory in another slightly different direction. Their model is about having a flexible approach. It demonstrates how a leader can adapt their management style depending upon the experience of the team and individuals they are working with, while also considering the environment and circumstances they find themselves in. The leader chooses their approach – either delegating, supporting, coaching, or directing – depending upon the situation.

Values-based leadership

Values-based leadership developed in response to various moral failings of prominent leaders. This school of leadership – related to trait theory – encompasses both servant leadership and authentic leadership models.

The central idea is that the values-based leader has a strong moral compass and leads according to their personal values and the shared values of their organisation or community. This model stresses the importance of being a good leader, not just a charismatic one, and the ability to make the right – or ethical decisions – not just effective, or bold choices.

Servant leadership theory

The idea of ‘the servant as leader’ was developed by Robert Greenleaf (1977). This model of servant leadership is primarily about motivation. The servant-leader wants to serve others and society by raising up new leaders and helping people move towards a positive vision of the future. They are not seeking power for themselves, instead, servant leaders share power and empower others.

Toxic or bad leaders

At the other end of the scale, academics also started to identify the opposite of values-based or good leaders. Marcia Lynn Whicker popularised the term ‘toxic leader’ (1996) and various models have been developed to identify such bad leadership.

For example, Barbara Kellerman’s study (2004) identified seven types of bad leaders. These are:

• Incompetent
• Rigid
• Intemperate
• Callous
• Corrupt
• Insular
• Evil

Authentic leadership theory

The term authentic leadership was first popularised by leadership practitioner Bill George (2003). He wrote a book, by the same name, in response to failures of senior corporate management, such as the fraudulent behaviour that led to the fall of the energy giant Enron (2001). George advocated for leaders of “purpose, values and integrity” rather than those motivated by greed and power.

Georges’s academic colleagues, Bruce Avolio and William Gardner, then developed models around this concept identifying the key behaviours or traits of an authentic leader. These included:

• Self-awareness and self-regulation
• Balanced processing of information
• Relational transparency
• Strong sense of morality

Why leadership theory is important

So that is a very quick introduction to some of the key leadership schools, theories, and models.

Theory can be dry but understanding these models is important for the following reasons:

• They give us language and concepts that help us reflect on our leadership experience and the conduct of others.
• They give us tools to use in our leadership practice
• They act as signposts to ways we can develop and grow as leaders

And you can start now. Take a few moments to reflect. Which of the leadership theories above most intrigues you? What does this model reveal about your own leadership? Which tool could you apply in the interactions you have today?

I once had to suspend a member of my team in the middle of delivering an important project. It was a difficult decision and painful for everyone involved, but it needed to happen. The actions of this individual had eroded the bond of trust that they had with the rest of the group. As a result, the whole team was no longer working effectively. If the individual was allowed to continue, the productivity of the whole organisation would have been undermined. Trust in the leadership, team discipline and work processes would have been damaged.

The behaviour of the individual had impacted output but, in the end, it was all about trust. Trust takes time to build and a moment to lose. Helping to reinforce trust within a team, and to avoid these breaches of trust, is a vital part of a manager’s role. That is because where there is a lack of trust there will also be a lack of high performance.

Even without this example, we all know that trust is important in any relationship. But what do we mean by trust? How would you define it? And having defined it, what can we do to develop trust in our relationships at work?

Defining trust

Trust can be thought of as faith, belief, or hope. It is the feeling of confidence that we have in a person, organisation, or thing. Trust has both a logical and emotional quality. We choose to trust a thing because of how we think and how we feel.

In relationships, trust is foundational, whether that is with friends and family, or with colleagues at work. In the context of relationships trust can be defined as:

“The willingness of a party to be vulnerable to the action of another party based on the expectation that the other will perform a particular action.”

Aljazzaf, Oerry, Capretz (2010)

So, whether we are starting to get to know someone and building rapport, or maintaining a long-lasting relationship, trust is critical. But, knowing this, how do you develop a culture of trust and psychological safety in the workplace?

The neuroscience of trust

The first thing we need to understand is how our brains work when it comes to putting faith in someone. Paul J. Zak has spent many years studying the neuroscience of trust. His research has centred around how higher levels of trust are linked to the brain producing higher levels of oxytocin.

It is great knowing that oxytocin helps to develop trust, but it is unlikely that we will be wanting to dose ourselves with synthetic hormones just to be more trusting! Fortunately, during his research, patterns emerged of actions that promoted oxytocin levels (positive behaviours) and things that inhibited its production (such as high stress). These were narrowed down to eight key behaviours to foster trust.

The 8 behaviours that foster trust in the workplace

So here are the eight behaviours, identified by Paul Zak, that can help to release oxytocin naturally and build a more trusting and effective culture in the workplace:

1. Recognise excellence
2. Induce “challenge stress” (difficult but achievable tasks)
3. Give people discretion in how they do their work
4. Enable job crafting (let employees choose projects to work on)
5. Share information broadly
6. Intentionally build relationships
7. Facilitate whole-person growth
8. Show vulnerability

Let’s expand each one a little more.

1.     Recognise excellence.

Public recognition of someone, when they have achieved something, can be a huge boost to oxytocin. If the praise is unexpected and personal it is even more powerful. Such recognition also boosts confidence.

2.     Induce “challenge stress”.

Challenge stress is the idea of setting difficult but achievable tasks. These stretch targets prompt personal growth and team development as they require focus and collaboration. These are the BHAG (Big Hairy Audacious Goals) championed by Jim Collins in his book Good to Great. The balance here is to find the right level of challenge so as not to push people into negative stress and therefore managers should monitor such goals and adjust them accordingly.

3.     Give people discretion in how they do their work.

If people feel empowered to do work in their way, they are likely to be more motivated and therefore more productive. This trust and freedom have also been shown to improve creativity and innovation. The opposite of this autonomy is when people are micro-managed which has opposite effects.

4.     Enable job crafting.

Job crafting goes beyond discretion about how they do tasks and takes this further to allow employees to choose which projects to work on. Not surprisingly, people work harder on the things they care about. Google has famously championed this way of working, allowing employees to pursue personal projects for 20% of their time alongside normal responsibilities. The challenge for the leader is to align people with their passions while covering all the operational outputs required of a team.

5.     Share information broadly.

People like to be informed; conversely, they hate it if they feel kept in the dark, even if unintentionally. This is because we all need levels of certainty to avoid negative stress. To build trust, organisations need to be open about goals, strategies, and even challenges.

6.     Intentionally build relationships.

Relatedness is important. We all want to feel part of something. But you must be intentional about building a sense of belonging to build high-performing teams. Creating social events and opportunities for social interaction is very important. As mentioned earlier, achieving challenging tasks also helps build and deepen these relationships.

7.     Facilitate whole-person growth.

Good leaders have and promote a growth mindset. They help people to develop personally as well as professionally. They also do not limit a person’s growth to the opportunities available within their organisation. Work-life balance, considerations such as family and health, should sit alongside discussions about performance for a person to feel truly valued and supported.

8.     Show vulnerability.

Finally, people need to show each other vulnerability. Opening up to someone (in an emotionally intelligent way) is an act of trust in itself. As Brené Brown highlights in her book Dare to Lead, when a leader shows vulnerability – when they are truthful about what they don’t know, acknowledge mistakes, or ask for advice from subordinates – it actually promotes credibility and strengthens team bonds.

Encouraging positive behaviours in your team

Whether you are a leader, a team member, or a freelancer working with multiple clients, building trust is vital to effective work environments. Therefore, if you want to have good relationships and high-performing teams, seek to build trust through these 8 behaviours:

1. Recognise excellence
2. Induce “challenge stress” (difficult but achievable tasks)
3. Give people discretion in how they do their work
4. Enable job crafting (let employees choose projects to work on)
5. Share information broadly
6. Intentionally build relationships
7. Facilitate whole-person growth
8. Show vulnerability

If you are intrigued by the mindset of trust then I recommend you read How to Stop Your Primal Brain from Hijacking You at Work which explores neuroscientist David Rock’s SCARF model and the psychology behind our social connectivity. This will really help you improve your one-to-one as well as your team interactions.

Dysfunctional Teams: Seven reasons why teams fail (and what you can do to help)

Have you ever been a member of any dysfunctional teams?

If you have then you know how frustrating, depressing, and stressful it can be. I certainly have been, both as an employee and as a manager, and leading an underperforming team has given me plenty of sleepless nights as I have sought to turn things around.

My experience has taught me the truth of Stephen R. Covey’s list of team problems. Stephen Covey, author of The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, went on to write Principle-Centred Leadership, which builds on the first book and highlights the vital importance of personal values in effective leadership models. The book includes lots of practical advice for leaders and managers, including an explanation of the seven persistent issues that undermine organisations. The 7 chronic problems he identifies are:

1. No shared vision or values

2. No strategic path

3. Poor alignment

4. Wrong style

5. Poor skills

6. Low trust

7. No self-integrity

They are called chronic because, as with chronic diseases, dysfunctional team problems are persistent and cause continual pain. If these chronic issues are not treated then the organisation will continue to deteriorate and could even die.

So here is a further explanation of each and some tips on how to avoid these pitfalls, or treat the problems if they already exist.

YouTube video: How to spot the 7 chronic problems of dysfunctional teams

1. No shared vision or values

Every organisation needs a purpose. On the meta scale, a business needs a clear reason to exist, something that attracts customers and employees alike. On the micro-scale, all teams need to know the vision they are working towards.

The problem is that many leaders fail to communicate a vision. Occasionally that is because they don’t know what the vision is, they are unsure of exactly where they are going. But all too often they just forget to tell people their dream or outline exactly the part the team has to play in delivering the larger organisational vision.

One key element of transformational leadership is communicating a team’s vision. If you are a leader and have not outlined your vision then take some time to think about it and put it into words. You need to be able to explain it in simple terms. Paint a picture of the better future that you are working towards. If you are an employee who does not understand the vision then ask; get your boss to share what it is that drives them, the change they want to make.

2. No strategic path

The next problem is related to the first. You cannot have a strategic path without knowing what the vision is. But, even if you have a vision, a leader still needs to lay out the path to get there.

The team needs to know the overarching plan of how they will get to a better future. This is what strategy is. Richard Rumelt, author of Good Strategy, Bad Strategy, gives the following definition:

“A strategy coordinates action to address a specific challenge.”

People need a plan to coordinate their actions. It does not need every detail sorted out, but it does require enough specific direction so that people can keep moving in the right direction. And that too leads us on neatly to our next chronic problem.

3. Poor alignment

Having a vision and strategy are essential, but they won’t guarantee success on their own. Individuals need to be aligned to that direction and that comes down to knowing their role within the team and the values that drive the organisation.

Roles are vital, but here I am not talking about mere titles. If you want an idea of the deluge of lengthy, cool-sounding but confusing job titles, then just take a look on LinkedIn, but I can guarantee that even their owners can struggle to explain their actual role. Here I mean the exact role we have to play in our team and our part in the overall plan.

Within a team we need to know how we fit alongside, to complement their strengths and weaknesses. Using a model such as Belbin’s team role finder can help this process. Individuals also need to understand how their tasks support the overall success of the organisation.

For example, Field Marshall ‘Monty’ Montgomery, when he took over the British 8^th Army in 1942, was in retreat across the African desert. To turn things around, he made sure that everyone, right down to the typists in Battalion headquarters, knew the importance of their contribution. In this way, he aligned everyone to the task of winning and led the Allies to victory in Tunisia in 1943.

4. Wrong style

The next problem is that of leadership style. A manager must employ an effective leadership approach to align their team to the strategy and vision. Situations change and employees differ so a good leader can flex their style accordingly.

If you are unsure how to adapt your management approach then I recommend Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model along with Max Landsberg’s Skill-Will matrix. Both of these tools help leaders to assess the best approach for the circumstances and team members.

Equally important as finding a good leadership style is avoiding a bad one. Toxic leadership is a sure-fire way to team dysfunctionality so avoid the seven traits of bad leaders, including incompetence, rigidity, intemperance, or being callous, corrupt, insular or evil.

5. Poor skills

Incompetence can be a cause of toxic leadership but competency can be a problem across a whole team. Sometimes people are just not experienced enough to do the job. Fortunately, this is one of the easiest things to fix. If people have the right character and a growth mindset, then they can learn the right skills.

In this instance, the responsibility of the manager is to identify the skills gaps and create personal development plans for individuals. These might be technical skills but don’t forget to consider people’s soft skills. These are often overlooked but are critical. If you don’t know where to start then the United Nations list of the 10 most important life skills can help. For managers who want to improve themselves, using Robert Katz’s framework of leadership skills is a good place to start to identify areas of growth.

6. Low trust

Nothing undermines a team’s performance as quickly as a lack of trust. Trust is the fundamental building block of all relationships, so when this breaks down teams are truly dysfunctional as the lack of trust is a blocker to working together.

We all know that trust is important but sometimes it is hard to quantify and that is why the Trust Equation is so helpful. Research by Green, Maister and Galford (2001) showed that:

 Trust (or Trustworthiness) = (Credibility + Reliability + Intimacy)/Self-Orientation

Here, credibility and reliability are self-explanatory but intimacy is worth explaining. In this instance, it relates to how safe you feel around a specific person. For this model, self-orientation equates to how self-centred a person is.

Where trust is lacking, there are proven behaviours that can help build trust in teams. Paul Zak identified eight behaviours that help foster trust in teams. These are:

1. Recognise excellence
2. Induce “challenge stress” (difficult but achievable tasks)
3. Give people discretion in how they do their work
4. Enable job crafting (let employees choose projects to work on)
5. Share information broadly
6. Intentionally build relationships
7. Facilitate whole-person growth
8. Show vulnerability

7. No self-integrity

Finally, a lack of self-integrity is symptomatic of poor team health. Integrity is best described as walking the talk, so if a leader or team’s actions do not match their words then there is a problem. At the fundamental level, this is about values. Are people aligned with their principles and are they making decisions that are aligned with the values of their organisation?

My favourite tool for exploring the relationship between behaviours and values is The Iceberg Model. It is a very simple theory. As with a physical iceberg, the visible bit (in this case people’s behaviours and words) is the small element that exists above the surface. Below the surface is the greater mass. In terms of organisational culture, this hidden space includes people’s thoughts and feelings, values and beliefs, fears and needs. To understand the behaviour you have to use questions to dig below the surface and discover the cause. Only once this diagnosis has taken place can a plan be put in place to change the behaviour.

Is your team dysfunctional? Does your team display any of the seven chronic problems?

It is worth taking a few seconds to reflect on your team. How is it performing? If there is a problem, can you identify which of the seven chronic problems are to blame? Ask yourself:

• Is there a shared vision and common values?
• Does the team have a strategic path?
• How well are the team aligned with the strategy?
• Does the management have the right leadership style?
• Are there any skill gaps?
• Is there a lack of trust in the team?
• How is the team’s integrity – do people walk the talk?

If you are a manager, why not get team members to give you some answers as well? It might feel like a painful process, but every team has challenges, so it would be a surprise to not find an area of weakness.

Take heart. What you have done is take the first positive step, that of diagnosis. As Dr Dean Ornish says,

“Awareness is the first step of healing.”

The good news is that you have now taken the first step. Next, you can plan and work out a way to solve the problems, because that is what high-performing teams do; they always seek to be better.