Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

For more than 2,000 years, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics has shaped how people think about the good life, happiness, and what it means to live well. Yet this ancient text isn’t just for academics in dusty libraries—it’s a practical guide for anyone who wants to build better habits, improve relationships, and understand what really matters.

To understand why Aristotle’s ideas remain so powerful, it helps to see how he built on—and broke from—the two giants who came before him: Socrates and Plato. Their conversations laid the foundation for one of history’s most influential visions of human flourishing.

Let’s walk through the key themes of the Nicomachean Ethics, how Aristotle developed the philosophical ideas of his teachers, and why this 4th-century BCE book still speaks directly to our 21st-century lives.

From Socrates to Plato to Aristotle: A Lineage of Big Questions

Aristotle didn’t invent moral philosophy from scratch. He inherited a tradition of questioning that began with Socrates, the famously curious Athenian (creator of the Socratic Method), who went around asking people things like “What is courage?” and “Can anyone knowingly do wrong?” Socrates believed one big idea:

“Virtue is knowledge. If you truly know what is good, you will naturally do it.”

Plato, Socrates’ student, took this even further. Plato refined the idea of the Cardinal Virtues, and in his view, moral truth exists in a higher, eternal realm of Forms. If you want to live well, you must align your soul with the perfect, unchanging Form of the Good.

But Aristotle had a different perspective. He agreed with his teachers that the good life was the ultimate human goal—but he wasn’t convinced that abstract knowledge or contemplation of ideals was enough. After all, plenty of people know what they should do but don’t do it.

So, Aristotle grounded ethics in the real world. For him:

Ethics is about action, habit, and daily practice—not just ideas.

1. Eudaimonia: The Real Meaning of Happiness

One of the most important themes in the Nicomachean Ethics is eudaimonia, usually translated as “happiness,” although “flourishing” or “living well” captures the meaning better.

For Aristotle, happiness isn’t a feeling, a mood, or a lucky break. It’s not the pleasure of a great meal or the thrill of achievement. Instead:

Eudaimonia is the long-term result of living a life of virtue, purpose, and fulfilment.

You don’t “get” happiness—you build it through your choices and habits.

Dr Martin Seligman, often referred to as the “father of positive psychology,” is a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and has conducted extensive research on happiness. He agrees with Aristotle’s premise and that pursuing certain activities, through conscious choices, is central to building lasting happiness. He identified five key elements for well-being, captured in the PERMA model (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishments). 

2. Virtue as a Habit: You Become What You Repeatedly Do

One of Aristotle’s most famous insights is that virtue is a habit. You’re not born generous, brave, patient, or wise. You become these things by practising them—over and over—until they become part of who you are.

“We are what we repeatedly do.”

For Aristotle, moral excellence is like learning an instrument. You don’t read about guitar—you play it. The same goes for courage, kindness, honesty, and self-control.

We develop these habits in the same way as any other. As Charles Duhigg demonstrates in The Power of Habit, and James Clear builds on in Atomic Habits, we improve our actions by influencing the Habit Loop, and adjusting the cues, routines and rewards linked to our activities. 

3. The Golden Mean: Finding Balance Between Extremes

Another core idea of the Nicomachean Ethics is the Doctrine of the Mean.

Aristotle argues that every virtue lies between two vices. For example:

• Courage lies between rashness and cowardice.
• Generosity is a balance between wastefulness and stinginess.
• Confidence sits between arrogance and timidity.

The “mean” isn’t a perfect mathematical centre—it’s the balanced spot that depends on the situation. 

Virtue is the art of acting appropriately, at the right time, in the right way, for the right reasons. So, it takes wisdom to assess where that balance lies at any one time.

4. Practical Wisdom: The Key to Making Good Decisions

Aristotle introduced the concept of phronēsis, often translated as practical wisdom. It’s about reading a situation, understanding what the moment requires, and making the right choice.

It’s the inner compass that helps you find the “mean” between extremes.

This practical wisdom emphasises and expands the value of wisdom, one of Plato’s four cardinal virtues. 

5. Friendship: The Highest Form of Human Connection

Aristotle dedicates two entire books to friendship. He outlines three types:

• Friendships of pleasure  
• Friendships of usefulness  
• Friendships of virtue  

The last is the deepest and most enduring, rooted in mutual respect and shared values. 

Therefore, choosing the right friends is important. As C.S. Lewis notes in his book The Four Loves:

“Friendship (as the ancients saw) can be a school of virtue; but also (as they did not see) a school of vice. It is ambivalent. It makes good men better and bad men worse.”

6. Responsibility and Choice: You Are the Author of Your Life

Aristotle argues that we are responsible for our actions, our habits, and ultimately our character. Your repeated choices shape who you become. This is empowering—your life can be directed through intentional action.

This tallies with Eastern Philosophy as well. For example, Lao Tzu (Laozi) said,

“Watch your thoughts, for they become your words; watch your words, for they become your actions; watch your actions, for they become your habits; watch your habits, for they become your character.”

In modern psychology, Carl Jung showed that our personality type informs our preferences for how we interact with the world. But our personal values and moral choices shape our character. 

As David Brooks points out in The Road to Character, rather than just Resume Values and a list of empty accomplishments, we need to focus on Eulogy Values – the things we want to be remembered for.

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Why Aristotle Still Matters

Aristotle’s ideas connect easily to modern life. His thinking is foundational to:

• Self-development and habit-building  
• Ethical Living and Values-Centred Leadership  
• Mental health and well-being  
• Healthy relationships  

His message remains timeless:

Happiness is not something we feel—it’s something we cultivate.

So, what positive first step can you take today to flourish more and live a happier life? Take a few minutes now to reflect and commit to one small action. That’s all you need to start creating a better habit and put you on the path to a more fulfilling life.

And if you would like any help thinking through what good looks like for you or assistance in developing your new routines, please do drop me a note via the Contact Page.

Plato’s Enduring Legacy in Moral Philosophy

Few thinkers have shaped Western philosophy as profoundly as Plato, the Athenian philosopher and student of Socrates. His ideas about knowledge, virtue, and justice underpin much of our moral and political thought today. Central to Plato’s philosophy are the four cardinal values — wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice — which he believed to be essential for both personal excellence and the harmony of society.

Understanding these Platonic virtues not only reveals the structure of Plato’s moral theory but also offers guidance for ethical living, justice, and flourishing in the modern world. For leaders, Plato created the first blueprint for values-based leadership and highlighted the importance of personal values.

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What Are the Cardinal Values According to Plato?

In The Republic, Plato presents four virtues that define the moral character of both individuals and societies:

1. Wisdom (Sophia)
2. Courage (Andreia)
3. Temperance (Sophrosyne)
4. Justice (Dikaiosyne)

These virtues correspond to the three parts of the soul — reason, spirit, and appetite — and their harmonious cooperation leads to justice, the ultimate expression of moral order.

Wisdom (Sophia): The Light of the Rational Soul

For Plato, wisdom arises from the rational part of the soul — the faculty concerned with truth and understanding. It allows individuals to discern what is truly good and to act accordingly. The wise person governs their life through knowledge, reflection, and rational deliberation.

In The Republic, philosopher-kings embody this virtue. Their wisdom equips them to govern justly and to make decisions guided by reason rather than desire.

Modern significance:

Today, wisdom represents ethical intelligence — the ability to make sound moral judgements in complex situations, essential for leaders, educators, and citizens alike. This ability is more important than ever, particularly in the face of the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and complex problems such as climate change.

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Courage (Andreia): The Strength of the Spirited Soul

Courage, for Plato, is not blind bravery but the steadfastness to uphold one’s moral convictions despite fear or hardship. It belongs to the spirited part of the soul — the seat of resolve and honour.

In Plato’s ideal state, the guardians or defenders embody this virtue. Their courage lies in their unwavering commitment to truth and justice, even in the face of danger.

Modern significance:

Courage today can be seen in those who stand up for ethical principles, challenge corruption, or speak truth to power. It’s the integrity and moral strength to act rightly when it’s most difficult. Courage is also related to resilience and the ability to endure and even thrive through challenges.

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Temperance (Sophrosyne): The Virtue of Self-Control

Temperance represents moderation, self-restraint, and harmony among the soul’s desires. It ensures that reason remains in control and that the appetites do not dominate behaviour.

For Plato, temperance is the glue that binds society together — the collective recognition that order and balance are essential for peace and unity.

Modern significance:

Temperance is not a word that is heard much today, especially as it goes against the prevailing messages of consumer advertising. In today’s fast-paced, consumption-driven world, temperance speaks to the need for self-discipline and balance. It promotes mindfulness, patience, and ethical restraint in the pursuit of happiness.

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Justice (Dikaiosyne): The Supreme Harmony of Virtue

Plato considered justice the highest virtue because it arises from the harmonious functioning of the soul’s three parts. When reason governs, spirit supports, and appetite obeys, the individual is just. Similarly, in the state, justice prevails when each class performs its proper role for the common good.

Justice, therefore, is not only social fairness but also inner harmony — the right ordering of the self.

Modern significance:

Justice remains central to political philosophy, ethics, and law. Plato’s view teaches that true justice begins with the individual and radiates outward into the community.

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The Interconnection of the Cardinal Virtues

Plato’s four virtues form a unified moral system. Wisdom provides moral direction, courage ensures perseverance, temperance maintains self-control, and justice harmonises them all. Each virtue relies on the others; one cannot be fully virtuous without all four.

This holistic view of virtue shows Plato’s belief that morality is not a collection of separate traits but a balanced state of being.

How Plato’s Ethics Link to Socrates and Aristotle

Plato’s ethical theory stands as a bridge between Socrates and Aristotle, forming the foundation of classical moral philosophy.

Socrates’ Influence

Plato’s teacher, Socrates, was the first to argue that virtue is a form of knowledge — that to know the good is to do the good. Socrates sought to attain this through dialogue (the Socratic Method). Plato inherited this belief and expanded it through his theory of the Forms, suggesting that wisdom allows one to perceive eternal truths such as justice and goodness.

In this way, Plato preserved Socrates’ moral intellectualism but gave it a metaphysical structure, grounding ethics in a universal reality beyond mere opinion.

Aristotle’s Development

Plato’s student, Aristotle, agreed that virtue is essential for a good life but diverged in his approach. Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics turned Plato’s abstract ideals into a practical system of virtue ethics, focusing on habits and the “golden mean” — the balance between excess and deficiency.

Thus, where Plato sought harmony through reason and metaphysical truth, Aristotle sought it through practical wisdom (phronesis) and moral character developed by experience.

Together, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle represent three stages of ethical evolution:

• Socrates: Virtue as knowledge.
• Plato: Virtue as harmony guided by reason.
• Aristotle: Virtue as practice and balance.

Plato’s Cardinal Virtues in Modern Life

Though written in the 4th century BCE, Plato’s virtues still provide guidance in education, business ethics, leadership, and personal development.

• Wisdom informs ethical leadership.
• Courage drives moral activism.
• Temperance promotes well-being and balance.
• Justice ensures fairness and harmony.

In contemporary terms, Plato’s ethics echo in movements for social justice, environmental responsibility, and ethical governance. They call us to cultivate character before change.

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Critiques and Continuing Influence

Critics have argued that Plato’s system, particularly his “philosopher-king” ideal, risks elitism. However, the enduring influence of his ideas on Christian theology, Renaissance humanism, and modern virtue ethics shows their adaptability and depth.

Philosophers such as Aquinas, Kant, and Rawls have drawn from Plato’s moral framework, ensuring that his concept of virtue remains central to discussions about justice, morality, and the good society.

Living the Cardinal Values Today

Plato’s four cardinal virtues — wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice — are as relevant today as they were in ancient Athens. They offer a model for cultivating moral integrity and societal harmony, encouraging individuals to act thoughtfully, bravely, and fairly.

By integrating Plato’s ethics with the insights of Socrates and Aristotle, we find a comprehensive vision of human excellence: to know the good, to practise it courageously, and to live harmoniously with reason and virtue.

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People, and particularly philosophers, have always been interested in knowing the best questions to ask. Socrates, Aristotle and Hermagoras of Temnos all played a part in the development of the 5Ws questioning technique. Understanding their approach can help us ask better questions, too.

Get him to the Greek (a philosophical decision)

I majored in Civil Engineering at Edinburgh University for my four years there. But when I arrived, due to my A-Level grades, I was offered direct entry into the second year. These grades were much more of a reflection upon my excellent teachers than upon me (especially when it came to my Maths grade which was frankly miraculous). But I saw an opportunity presented by this offer and therefore immediately leapt at it.

I went into the office of my Director of Studies and duly proposed that instead of starting either year one or two of engineering, I should study Ancient History and Archaeology instead. After all, if I did not need to do the first year of engineering, surely I was free to study other things? It was not a question that he was expecting. My request was so unusual that he did not really know what to say. The moment of confusion created by my question was just enough for me to persuade him that this subject swap was not just possible, but was actually a really good idea to broaden my education.

I have always loved history and at that time I was getting increasingly interested in philosophy too. Therefore, I was excited about getting the chance to delve into the thinking arising from the ancient world, and Greece in particular. After all, the system of thought born in Greece was foundational to the development of culture in Europe and the West.

Socrates: The Grandaddy of philosophy

When studying European ancient history there are some larger than life characters that you cannot get around. Visionaries such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar reshaped the physical and political landscape. Others, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle redefined the conceptual and intellectual environment.

Socrates was immortalised in the idealistic writings of Plato (The Dialogues) and has become the hero and father of Western Philosophy.  His thinking contributed to the fields of ethics, logic, and pedagogy (teaching), to name but a few. I quickly fell in love with Socrates’ simple yet profound approach to life, and particularly his predilection for questions.

“I know you won’t believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others.” – Socrates

The Socratic Method

But perhaps Socrates was most famous for being inquisitive.  He developed the elenchus, the Socratic method, a technique that focuses on stimulating critical thinking. Central to the methodology is the idea of refining ideas to get closer to the absolute truth. This involves working towards stating an idea (thesis) clearly, challenging assumptions, and clarifying terminology.

The method is now primarily linked with rhetoric and for use in debates between individuals holding opposing viewpoints.  But it was not just about setting out an argument; learning to ask questions was key to its effectiveness.

The Socratic method is often used as a ‘negative’ question technique. In other words, it seeks to undermine or disprove an opposing hypothesis.  When the person being questioned has to admit their thinking is flawed, it exposes their wrong assumption and can often embarrass them.  Big-shot lawyers in Hollywood courtroom dramas demonstrate the extreme of this when played out dramatically (think A Few Good Men or 12 Angry Men).

Socrates happily asked questions of just about anything and anybody. Socrates’ subtle yet ironic questions often revealed other people’s ignorance.  This was helpful in unpicking wrong assumptions but he became known as the ‘Gadfly’ for his persistent interrogation.  Unfortunately, his questions eventually goaded so many prominent Athenians that he was sentenced to death.

Thus, he proved that asking effective questions does not necessarily make you popular. You have to be careful not to make people feel or appear stupid. Remember also, people hold dearly to certain assumptions or beliefs. Therefore, it is important to apply emotional intelligence when using this methodology.

My post on Socratic Questioning Technique explains how to practically use this approach.

Aristotle, Hermagoras, and the refinement of the question technique

The Socratic method is a powerful technique but there are situations where one does not start with a hypothesis. Later philosophers can help us here.  Others looked into more open methods of asking questions that went beyond just debate and into general inquiry.

Aristotle is attributed with being the first person to define the Septem Circumstantiae or “Seven Circumstances” in Book 3 of his Nicomachean Ethics (Sloan, 2010). These are the core seven questions that are necessary to understand and explain a situation.

Hermagoras of Temnos (with attribution from Augustine) clarified these seven circumstances for use in rhetoric and storytelling.  He listed them as: quis, quid, quando, ubi, cur, quem ad modum, quibus adminiculis.  These translate as who, what, when, where, why, in what way, by what means (Ballif and Moran 2005).

Cicero is also attributed to using a similar system.  This is the basis of what we know today as ‘the 5Ws’ of what, where, when, who, why (and how).

Rudyard Kipling immortalised the concept when he wrote,

“I keep six honest serving-men, (They taught me all I knew); Their names are What and Why and When, And How and Where and Who.”

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The Five Ws

Journalists in the twentieth century adopted the Five Ws as an interrogative style. It is an approach that is useful for getting the facts of a story.  Police officers, researchers, crisis and incident managers, and others have used the same technique. In this context, the 5Ws became more specifically:

• Who is it about (who is involved)?
• What happened (what’s the story)?
• When did it take place?
• Where did it take place?
• How did it happen?
• Why did it happen?

The idea behind this interrogative technique is to ask open questions. Therefore, as far as possible, one can build up an unbiased or uninfluenced statement of the facts. The principle of using open questions, like those captured in the 5Ws, is that you cannot answer any of them with just a yes or a no. The open question invites elaboration and the divulgence of more facts.

When you are trying to look at something holistically and understand a situation it is important to get information (not just the answers you want). This is part of the Observe and Orientate phases of decision making as outlined in the OODA loop. At this stage, it is really helpful to ask open questions. Therefore, a framework such as the 5Ws can help to give a framework to our thinking, improve our planning, problem-solving and decision making.

Beyond the 5Ws question technique

The 5Ws approach is specifically tailored towards information gathering about a past event. It is good at getting a snapshot of the now.

When tackling strategic issues, we are not just trying to get a story; we are also looking to the future so we can establish a plan and develop options. The Right Questions approach takes the 5Ws a step further.  By adding the ‘Which?’ question on top of the 5Ws, it is also possible to consider the concept of ‘selection’.  This helps us to look at options and risks.

So we find that we go almost full circle and end up with seven basic questions that reflect those asked by Hermagoras over 2000 years ago; a list comprised of the seven most used interrogatives of the English language: what, where, when, who, why, how, and which. It just goes to show that, as Solomon said, “There is nothing new under the sun!”

We will look at these seven interrogatives in more depth in the next post, The Seven Most Important Questions in the English Language.