Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

For more than 2,000 years, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics has shaped how people think about the good life, happiness, and what it means to live well. Yet this ancient text isn’t just for academics in dusty libraries—it’s a practical guide for anyone who wants to build better habits, improve relationships, and understand what really matters.

To understand why Aristotle’s ideas remain so powerful, it helps to see how he built on—and broke from—the two giants who came before him: Socrates and Plato. Their conversations laid the foundation for one of history’s most influential visions of human flourishing.

Let’s walk through the key themes of the Nicomachean Ethics, how Aristotle developed the philosophical ideas of his teachers, and why this 4th-century BCE book still speaks directly to our 21st-century lives.

From Socrates to Plato to Aristotle: A Lineage of Big Questions

Aristotle didn’t invent moral philosophy from scratch. He inherited a tradition of questioning that began with Socrates, the famously curious Athenian (creator of the Socratic Method), who went around asking people things like “What is courage?” and “Can anyone knowingly do wrong?” Socrates believed one big idea:

“Virtue is knowledge. If you truly know what is good, you will naturally do it.”

Plato, Socrates’ student, took this even further. Plato refined the idea of the Cardinal Virtues, and in his view, moral truth exists in a higher, eternal realm of Forms. If you want to live well, you must align your soul with the perfect, unchanging Form of the Good.

But Aristotle had a different perspective. He agreed with his teachers that the good life was the ultimate human goal—but he wasn’t convinced that abstract knowledge or contemplation of ideals was enough. After all, plenty of people know what they should do but don’t do it.

So, Aristotle grounded ethics in the real world. For him:

Ethics is about action, habit, and daily practice—not just ideas.

1. Eudaimonia: The Real Meaning of Happiness

One of the most important themes in the Nicomachean Ethics is eudaimonia, usually translated as “happiness,” although “flourishing” or “living well” captures the meaning better.

For Aristotle, happiness isn’t a feeling, a mood, or a lucky break. It’s not the pleasure of a great meal or the thrill of achievement. Instead:

Eudaimonia is the long-term result of living a life of virtue, purpose, and fulfilment.

You don’t “get” happiness—you build it through your choices and habits.

Dr Martin Seligman, often referred to as the “father of positive psychology,” is a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and has conducted extensive research on happiness. He agrees with Aristotle’s premise and that pursuing certain activities, through conscious choices, is central to building lasting happiness. He identified five key elements for well-being, captured in the PERMA model (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishments). 

2. Virtue as a Habit: You Become What You Repeatedly Do

One of Aristotle’s most famous insights is that virtue is a habit. You’re not born generous, brave, patient, or wise. You become these things by practising them—over and over—until they become part of who you are.

“We are what we repeatedly do.”

For Aristotle, moral excellence is like learning an instrument. You don’t read about guitar—you play it. The same goes for courage, kindness, honesty, and self-control.

We develop these habits in the same way as any other. As Charles Duhigg demonstrates in The Power of Habit, and James Clear builds on in Atomic Habits, we improve our actions by influencing the Habit Loop, and adjusting the cues, routines and rewards linked to our activities. 

3. The Golden Mean: Finding Balance Between Extremes

Another core idea of the Nicomachean Ethics is the Doctrine of the Mean.

Aristotle argues that every virtue lies between two vices. For example:

• Courage lies between rashness and cowardice.
• Generosity is a balance between wastefulness and stinginess.
• Confidence sits between arrogance and timidity.

The “mean” isn’t a perfect mathematical centre—it’s the balanced spot that depends on the situation. 

Virtue is the art of acting appropriately, at the right time, in the right way, for the right reasons. So, it takes wisdom to assess where that balance lies at any one time.

4. Practical Wisdom: The Key to Making Good Decisions

Aristotle introduced the concept of phronēsis, often translated as practical wisdom. It’s about reading a situation, understanding what the moment requires, and making the right choice.

It’s the inner compass that helps you find the “mean” between extremes.

This practical wisdom emphasises and expands the value of wisdom, one of Plato’s four cardinal virtues. 

5. Friendship: The Highest Form of Human Connection

Aristotle dedicates two entire books to friendship. He outlines three types:

• Friendships of pleasure  
• Friendships of usefulness  
• Friendships of virtue  

The last is the deepest and most enduring, rooted in mutual respect and shared values. 

Therefore, choosing the right friends is important. As C.S. Lewis notes in his book The Four Loves:

“Friendship (as the ancients saw) can be a school of virtue; but also (as they did not see) a school of vice. It is ambivalent. It makes good men better and bad men worse.”

6. Responsibility and Choice: You Are the Author of Your Life

Aristotle argues that we are responsible for our actions, our habits, and ultimately our character. Your repeated choices shape who you become. This is empowering—your life can be directed through intentional action.

This tallies with Eastern Philosophy as well. For example, Lao Tzu (Laozi) said,

“Watch your thoughts, for they become your words; watch your words, for they become your actions; watch your actions, for they become your habits; watch your habits, for they become your character.”

In modern psychology, Carl Jung showed that our personality type informs our preferences for how we interact with the world. But our personal values and moral choices shape our character. 

As David Brooks points out in The Road to Character, rather than just Resume Values and a list of empty accomplishments, we need to focus on Eulogy Values – the things we want to be remembered for.

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Why Aristotle Still Matters

Aristotle’s ideas connect easily to modern life. His thinking is foundational to:

• Self-development and habit-building  
• Ethical Living and Values-Centred Leadership  
• Mental health and well-being  
• Healthy relationships  

His message remains timeless:

Happiness is not something we feel—it’s something we cultivate.

So, what positive first step can you take today to flourish more and live a happier life? Take a few minutes now to reflect and commit to one small action. That’s all you need to start creating a better habit and put you on the path to a more fulfilling life.

And if you would like any help thinking through what good looks like for you or assistance in developing your new routines, please do drop me a note via the Contact Page.

Plato’s Enduring Legacy in Moral Philosophy

Few thinkers have shaped Western philosophy as profoundly as Plato, the Athenian philosopher and student of Socrates. His ideas about knowledge, virtue, and justice underpin much of our moral and political thought today. Central to Plato’s philosophy are the four cardinal values — wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice — which he believed to be essential for both personal excellence and the harmony of society.

Understanding these Platonic virtues not only reveals the structure of Plato’s moral theory but also offers guidance for ethical living, justice, and flourishing in the modern world. For leaders, Plato created the first blueprint for values-based leadership and highlighted the importance of personal values.

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What Are the Cardinal Values According to Plato?

In The Republic, Plato presents four virtues that define the moral character of both individuals and societies:

1. Wisdom (Sophia)
2. Courage (Andreia)
3. Temperance (Sophrosyne)
4. Justice (Dikaiosyne)

These virtues correspond to the three parts of the soul — reason, spirit, and appetite — and their harmonious cooperation leads to justice, the ultimate expression of moral order.

Wisdom (Sophia): The Light of the Rational Soul

For Plato, wisdom arises from the rational part of the soul — the faculty concerned with truth and understanding. It allows individuals to discern what is truly good and to act accordingly. The wise person governs their life through knowledge, reflection, and rational deliberation.

In The Republic, philosopher-kings embody this virtue. Their wisdom equips them to govern justly and to make decisions guided by reason rather than desire.

Modern significance:

Today, wisdom represents ethical intelligence — the ability to make sound moral judgements in complex situations, essential for leaders, educators, and citizens alike. This ability is more important than ever, particularly in the face of the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and complex problems such as climate change.

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Courage (Andreia): The Strength of the Spirited Soul

Courage, for Plato, is not blind bravery but the steadfastness to uphold one’s moral convictions despite fear or hardship. It belongs to the spirited part of the soul — the seat of resolve and honour.

In Plato’s ideal state, the guardians or defenders embody this virtue. Their courage lies in their unwavering commitment to truth and justice, even in the face of danger.

Modern significance:

Courage today can be seen in those who stand up for ethical principles, challenge corruption, or speak truth to power. It’s the integrity and moral strength to act rightly when it’s most difficult. Courage is also related to resilience and the ability to endure and even thrive through challenges.

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Temperance (Sophrosyne): The Virtue of Self-Control

Temperance represents moderation, self-restraint, and harmony among the soul’s desires. It ensures that reason remains in control and that the appetites do not dominate behaviour.

For Plato, temperance is the glue that binds society together — the collective recognition that order and balance are essential for peace and unity.

Modern significance:

Temperance is not a word that is heard much today, especially as it goes against the prevailing messages of consumer advertising. In today’s fast-paced, consumption-driven world, temperance speaks to the need for self-discipline and balance. It promotes mindfulness, patience, and ethical restraint in the pursuit of happiness.

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Justice (Dikaiosyne): The Supreme Harmony of Virtue

Plato considered justice the highest virtue because it arises from the harmonious functioning of the soul’s three parts. When reason governs, spirit supports, and appetite obeys, the individual is just. Similarly, in the state, justice prevails when each class performs its proper role for the common good.

Justice, therefore, is not only social fairness but also inner harmony — the right ordering of the self.

Modern significance:

Justice remains central to political philosophy, ethics, and law. Plato’s view teaches that true justice begins with the individual and radiates outward into the community.

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The Interconnection of the Cardinal Virtues

Plato’s four virtues form a unified moral system. Wisdom provides moral direction, courage ensures perseverance, temperance maintains self-control, and justice harmonises them all. Each virtue relies on the others; one cannot be fully virtuous without all four.

This holistic view of virtue shows Plato’s belief that morality is not a collection of separate traits but a balanced state of being.

How Plato’s Ethics Link to Socrates and Aristotle

Plato’s ethical theory stands as a bridge between Socrates and Aristotle, forming the foundation of classical moral philosophy.

Socrates’ Influence

Plato’s teacher, Socrates, was the first to argue that virtue is a form of knowledge — that to know the good is to do the good. Socrates sought to attain this through dialogue (the Socratic Method). Plato inherited this belief and expanded it through his theory of the Forms, suggesting that wisdom allows one to perceive eternal truths such as justice and goodness.

In this way, Plato preserved Socrates’ moral intellectualism but gave it a metaphysical structure, grounding ethics in a universal reality beyond mere opinion.

Aristotle’s Development

Plato’s student, Aristotle, agreed that virtue is essential for a good life but diverged in his approach. Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics turned Plato’s abstract ideals into a practical system of virtue ethics, focusing on habits and the “golden mean” — the balance between excess and deficiency.

Thus, where Plato sought harmony through reason and metaphysical truth, Aristotle sought it through practical wisdom (phronesis) and moral character developed by experience.

Together, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle represent three stages of ethical evolution:

• Socrates: Virtue as knowledge.
• Plato: Virtue as harmony guided by reason.
• Aristotle: Virtue as practice and balance.

Plato’s Cardinal Virtues in Modern Life

Though written in the 4th century BCE, Plato’s virtues still provide guidance in education, business ethics, leadership, and personal development.

• Wisdom informs ethical leadership.
• Courage drives moral activism.
• Temperance promotes well-being and balance.
• Justice ensures fairness and harmony.

In contemporary terms, Plato’s ethics echo in movements for social justice, environmental responsibility, and ethical governance. They call us to cultivate character before change.

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Critiques and Continuing Influence

Critics have argued that Plato’s system, particularly his “philosopher-king” ideal, risks elitism. However, the enduring influence of his ideas on Christian theology, Renaissance humanism, and modern virtue ethics shows their adaptability and depth.

Philosophers such as Aquinas, Kant, and Rawls have drawn from Plato’s moral framework, ensuring that his concept of virtue remains central to discussions about justice, morality, and the good society.

Living the Cardinal Values Today

Plato’s four cardinal virtues — wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice — are as relevant today as they were in ancient Athens. They offer a model for cultivating moral integrity and societal harmony, encouraging individuals to act thoughtfully, bravely, and fairly.

By integrating Plato’s ethics with the insights of Socrates and Aristotle, we find a comprehensive vision of human excellence: to know the good, to practise it courageously, and to live harmoniously with reason and virtue.

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Using the Socratic Method for Coaching: Ancient Wisdom for Modern Leadership

In a world obsessed with quick fixes and instant answers, the Socratic Method offers a timeless path to deeper thinking and authentic leadership. Rooted in the philosophy of Socrates, this ancient technique emphasises the power of questions over answers — a perfect fit for modern coaching and personal development.

As a leadership coach, business leader (and curious soul), I have adopted the Socratic Method as a habit in my life and work. As an approach, it is a great compliment to other coaching tools, such as the GROW model, and with various leadership styles. So, whether you’re a professional coach, an executive, or a team leader, applying the Socratic approach can unlock critical thinking, boost self-awareness, and transform how you guide yourself and others.

What Is the Socratic Method?

The Socratic Method is a structured dialogue technique based on asking thought-provoking questions to challenge assumptions, clarify ideas, and reveal insights. Instead of providing direct advice, the Socratic coach helps individuals uncover their own answers.

Socrates believed that knowledge resides within each person — the coach’s role is to awaken it. His famous declaration, “The unexamined life is not worth living,” captures the essence of this approach: self-reflection leads to wisdom.

The Socratic Method in Modern Coaching

In today’s coaching world, success isn’t about giving advice (unlike a mentor) but helping clients find clarity within themselves. The Socratic Method aligns perfectly with this philosophy.

Through guided questioning, a Socratic coach helps clients:

• Clarify goals and personal values
• Examine their thought patterns
• Challenge limiting beliefs
• Strengthen decision-making skills
• Build self-awareness and accountability

Instead of asking, “Why did you fail to meet your goal?” a Socratic coach might ask, “What assumptions guided your plan?” or “What might you do differently next time?” These open questions create insight and ownership — the foundation of lasting transformation.

The Link Between Socrates and Leadership

Great leadership today, in most cases, requires more empathy, reflection, and collaboration — and less command and control. The Socratic approach to leadership replaces directives with dialogue, empowering teams to think critically and act autonomously.

A traditional manager says, “Here’s what to do.”

A Socratic leader asks, “What do you think would work best, and why?”

By encouraging inquiry, Socratic leaders foster innovation, trust, and engagement. This questioning style transforms leadership into a shared process of learning — exactly what organisations need in a fast-changing world.

Core Principles of Socratic Coaching and Leadership

1. Curiosity Over Judgment

Socrates approached every discussion as a learner, not a judge. In coaching, this means maintaining curiosity about your client’s experiences and beliefs rather than labelling them as right or wrong.

2. Questions Over Answers

Great coaches don’t offer solutions — they guide discovery. Ask open-ended questions such as:

• “What does success mean to you?”
• “What assumptions might you be making?”
• “What alternative perspectives could also be true?”

These questions spark new thinking and self-realisation.

3. Self-Knowledge as the Root of Leadership

Socrates urged, “Know thyself.” True leadership begins with understanding one’s own motivations, strengths, and blind spots. Socratic coaching helps individuals cultivate that awareness, leading to grounded, authentic leadership.

4. Dialogue Over Monologue

The Socratic Method depends on genuine conversation. Coaches and leaders who embrace dialogue build stronger relationships, mutual respect, and shared accountability.

5. The Power of Reflection and Silence

Socrates valued silence as a tool for thought. In coaching, silence allows clients to process insights and reach their own conclusions. It’s in the quiet moments that breakthroughs often occur.

How to Apply the Socratic Method in Coaching

Step 1: Create a Safe Space

Trust is the foundation of effective coaching. Encourage openness by ensuring clients feel heard and respected. The Socratic Method works only when people feel psychologically safe. A great way to create such a space is to follow Nancy Kline‘s ten principles of a Thinking Environment.

Step 2: Define the Core Question

Socrates often began with one central question — such as, “What is justice?” In coaching, that might be “What does success look like for you?” or “What belief might be holding you back?”

Step 3: Explore Through Thoughtful Inquiry

Guide your client through questions that reveal assumptions and alternative views:

• “How did you come to that conclusion?”
• “What might happen if you tried another approach?”
• “What evidence supports your current belief?”

This helps clients think critically about their reasoning.

Step 4: Encourage Deep Reflection

Allow time for silence. Reflection enables clients to connect insights to real-world behavior, strengthening long-term learning.

Step 5: Turn Insight Into Action

Socratic coaching isn’t just about philosophy — it’s about results. Summarise key learnings and translate them into action steps by asking, “What will you do differently based on what you’ve discovered?”

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The Socratic Method and Leadership Development

Applying the Socratic Method in leadership development helps organisations foster self-reliant, strategic thinkers.

In Practice, Socratic Leadership Looks Like:

• Decision-Making: Asking diverse viewpoints before finalising actions.
• Performance Reviews: Using reflective questions instead of evaluative criticism.
• Team Learning: Encouraging inquiry and curiosity to drive innovation.
• Change Management: Guiding teams through self-reflection during transitions.

Socratic leadership builds cultures of curiosity and accountability — where people learn not because they’re told to, but because they want to.

Why the Socratic Method Matters in the Modern Era

In an age of artificial intelligence, automation, and information overload, human insight is the competitive advantage. The Socratic Method cultivates this insight through reflection, reasoning, and emotional intelligence.

By applying Socratic principles in coaching and leadership, professionals can:

• Strengthen critical thinking
• Build ethical decision-making
• Foster self-awareness and empathy
• Create sustainable behavioural change

As Socrates taught, wisdom begins with knowing we don’t have all the answers — but asking the right questions brings us closer to truth.

Conclusion: Be a Modern Socrates in Coaching and Leadership

To use the Socratic Method for coaching is to lead with humility, curiosity, and purpose. It’s not about providing answers but facilitating discovery. Socratic coaches and leaders empower others to think deeply, act consciously, and grow authentically.

In a time when quick answers abound, the Socratic approach reminds us that true leadership is not about being right — it’s about helping others think for themselves.

If you would like to know more about the Socratic Method, do read this article:

How to Use Socratic Questioning Technique

What is the Socratic method, and how do you use it in conversations, debates and critical thinking. Here is a short YouTube Video:

The Socratic Method: A Video Introduction

The Socratic Method is a process of dialogue, based on questioning, that inspires critical thinking and analysis. Primarily the method was designed for moral and philosophical enquiry, but the technique can be used in almost any discussion and is often used in coaching.

When used well, it helps to structure constructive and even challenging conversations without descending into argument or pure rhetoric.

This video explains the 5 steps to follow to have a Socratic dialogue. If you want to find out more then read How to Progress from Debate to Dialogue Using the Socratic Method.

People, and particularly philosophers, have always been interested in knowing the best questions to ask. Socrates, Aristotle and Hermagoras of Temnos all played a part in the development of the 5Ws questioning technique. Understanding their approach can help us ask better questions, too.

Get him to the Greek (a philosophical decision)

I majored in Civil Engineering at Edinburgh University for my four years there. But when I arrived, due to my A-Level grades, I was offered direct entry into the second year. These grades were much more of a reflection upon my excellent teachers than upon me (especially when it came to my Maths grade which was frankly miraculous). But I saw an opportunity presented by this offer and therefore immediately leapt at it.

I went into the office of my Director of Studies and duly proposed that instead of starting either year one or two of engineering, I should study Ancient History and Archaeology instead. After all, if I did not need to do the first year of engineering, surely I was free to study other things? It was not a question that he was expecting. My request was so unusual that he did not really know what to say. The moment of confusion created by my question was just enough for me to persuade him that this subject swap was not just possible, but was actually a really good idea to broaden my education.

I have always loved history and at that time I was getting increasingly interested in philosophy too. Therefore, I was excited about getting the chance to delve into the thinking arising from the ancient world, and Greece in particular. After all, the system of thought born in Greece was foundational to the development of culture in Europe and the West.

Socrates: The Grandaddy of philosophy

When studying European ancient history there are some larger than life characters that you cannot get around. Visionaries such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar reshaped the physical and political landscape. Others, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle redefined the conceptual and intellectual environment.

Socrates was immortalised in the idealistic writings of Plato (The Dialogues) and has become the hero and father of Western Philosophy.  His thinking contributed to the fields of ethics, logic, and pedagogy (teaching), to name but a few. I quickly fell in love with Socrates’ simple yet profound approach to life, and particularly his predilection for questions.

“I know you won’t believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others.” – Socrates

The Socratic Method

But perhaps Socrates was most famous for being inquisitive.  He developed the elenchus, the Socratic method, a technique that focuses on stimulating critical thinking. Central to the methodology is the idea of refining ideas to get closer to the absolute truth. This involves working towards stating an idea (thesis) clearly, challenging assumptions, and clarifying terminology.

The method is now primarily linked with rhetoric and for use in debates between individuals holding opposing viewpoints.  But it was not just about setting out an argument; learning to ask questions was key to its effectiveness.

The Socratic method is often used as a ‘negative’ question technique. In other words, it seeks to undermine or disprove an opposing hypothesis.  When the person being questioned has to admit their thinking is flawed, it exposes their wrong assumption and can often embarrass them.  Big-shot lawyers in Hollywood courtroom dramas demonstrate the extreme of this when played out dramatically (think A Few Good Men or 12 Angry Men).

Socrates happily asked questions of just about anything and anybody. Socrates’ subtle yet ironic questions often revealed other people’s ignorance.  This was helpful in unpicking wrong assumptions but he became known as the ‘Gadfly’ for his persistent interrogation.  Unfortunately, his questions eventually goaded so many prominent Athenians that he was sentenced to death.

Thus, he proved that asking effective questions does not necessarily make you popular. You have to be careful not to make people feel or appear stupid. Remember also, people hold dearly to certain assumptions or beliefs. Therefore, it is important to apply emotional intelligence when using this methodology.

My post on Socratic Questioning Technique explains how to practically use this approach.

Aristotle, Hermagoras, and the refinement of the question technique

The Socratic method is a powerful technique but there are situations where one does not start with a hypothesis. Later philosophers can help us here.  Others looked into more open methods of asking questions that went beyond just debate and into general inquiry.

Aristotle is attributed with being the first person to define the Septem Circumstantiae or “Seven Circumstances” in Book 3 of his Nicomachean Ethics (Sloan, 2010). These are the core seven questions that are necessary to understand and explain a situation.

Hermagoras of Temnos (with attribution from Augustine) clarified these seven circumstances for use in rhetoric and storytelling.  He listed them as: quis, quid, quando, ubi, cur, quem ad modum, quibus adminiculis.  These translate as who, what, when, where, why, in what way, by what means (Ballif and Moran 2005).

Cicero is also attributed to using a similar system.  This is the basis of what we know today as ‘the 5Ws’ of what, where, when, who, why (and how).

Rudyard Kipling immortalised the concept when he wrote,

“I keep six honest serving-men, (They taught me all I knew); Their names are What and Why and When, And How and Where and Who.”

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The Five Ws

Journalists in the twentieth century adopted the Five Ws as an interrogative style. It is an approach that is useful for getting the facts of a story.  Police officers, researchers, crisis and incident managers, and others have used the same technique. In this context, the 5Ws became more specifically:

• Who is it about (who is involved)?
• What happened (what’s the story)?
• When did it take place?
• Where did it take place?
• How did it happen?
• Why did it happen?

The idea behind this interrogative technique is to ask open questions. Therefore, as far as possible, one can build up an unbiased or uninfluenced statement of the facts. The principle of using open questions, like those captured in the 5Ws, is that you cannot answer any of them with just a yes or a no. The open question invites elaboration and the divulgence of more facts.

When you are trying to look at something holistically and understand a situation it is important to get information (not just the answers you want). This is part of the Observe and Orientate phases of decision making as outlined in the OODA loop. At this stage, it is really helpful to ask open questions. Therefore, a framework such as the 5Ws can help to give a framework to our thinking, improve our planning, problem-solving and decision making.

Beyond the 5Ws question technique

The 5Ws approach is specifically tailored towards information gathering about a past event. It is good at getting a snapshot of the now.

When tackling strategic issues, we are not just trying to get a story; we are also looking to the future so we can establish a plan and develop options. The Right Questions approach takes the 5Ws a step further.  By adding the ‘Which?’ question on top of the 5Ws, it is also possible to consider the concept of ‘selection’.  This helps us to look at options and risks.

So we find that we go almost full circle and end up with seven basic questions that reflect those asked by Hermagoras over 2000 years ago; a list comprised of the seven most used interrogatives of the English language: what, where, when, who, why, how, and which. It just goes to show that, as Solomon said, “There is nothing new under the sun!”

We will look at these seven interrogatives in more depth in the next post, The Seven Most Important Questions in the English Language.

A Simple 5-Step Process to Apply The Socratic Method

The Socratic Method, as outlined in Plato’s Theaetetus, is a process of questioning that inspires critical thinking and analysis. Primarily the method was designed for moral and philosophical enquiry but the technique has been used in many other fields. The strength of the Socratic approach lies in its ability to challenge assumptions and negative thought patterns.

Being able to hold good conversations is a critical communication skill and important for developing meaningful relationships. Being able to effectively ask questions is also a foundational leadership skill.

“Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel.”

Socrates

Directive or non-directive questioning?

The challenge with using the Socratic method is that the questioner needs to be very self-aware. The direction of the dialogue can be swayed by the questioner and they can sway the direction and emphasis of the dialogue. The person initiating the question naturally takes on a leading role. The Socratic method allows the questioner to subtly challenge certain ideas, evoke particular thoughts or get the subject to establish a particular logical viewpoint. This can be done in either a directive or non-directive way.

If the questioner assumes that they already know the correct answer they will ask leading questions. The technique can be seen as creating leading, loaded or weighted questions. Used in this way it can be largely convergent in the thinking it inspires. It directs towards and converges upon the questioner’s point of view, rather than helping to clarify the premise of the questionee. If this is the aim then the method can be used as a debating technique to ‘win’ an argument. This is a problem in some contexts, for example in coaching.

Therefore even though it is non-directive in style it can be quite directive in its application. For a leader and manager, this can be very useful when helping someone to see an error in their work, thinking or behaviour. Instead of directly criticising or pointing out the fault, using the Socratic method you can help a person to see the illogical or erroneous nature of their approach.

“I cannot teach anybody anything. I can only make them think”

Socrates

Watch-outs when using the approach

One danger to this method, if you use it in the directive style, is that the conversation can descend into an argument. Debating can take this Socratic approach but when people are divided in viewpoint then this can descend into pure rhetoric. It is then about point scoring or winning. The value of listening to the other person and discussing alternative viewpoints is lost.  This is often what happens in political debates.

At worst this becomes an exercise in confirmation bias rather than enquiry. The resulting argument undermines potential learning that should take place.  Therefore this descent should be avoided.

My advice is to remain humble. As Socrates himself said:

“The only true wisdom is in knowing that you know nothing.”

Socrates

As you look at the evidence for and against a position it may turn out that the wrong assumption lies with you. I have certainly found that out before! Remember the advice of Stephen Covey:

“Seek first to understand, then to be understood.”

Stephen Covey

Nancy Kline uses a similar process (in terms of steps) to the Socratic method in her Thinking Partnerships. The difference is that the Thinking Environment approach and the nature of the questions used make it less directive or confrontational and therefore better for coaching and mentoring.

“Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle.”

Socrates

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A question framework for the Socratic method

Here is an example 5 step framework for this type of Socratic questioning:

1. Receive

First, receive what the other person has to say. Listen to the other person’s premise, view or argument. And remember you have to properly listen to be able to do the next step.

2. Reflect

Sum up the person’s view-point or argument and reflect it back. Do this by first getting them to clarify and sum up their position and then by paraphrasing or repeating it back to them.

3. Refine

Ask them to provide their evidence. Find out why they are thinking or acting in that way. Discover the facts, values or assumptions that underpin their standpoint. Often the premise will be based on beliefs rather than hard facts. Challenge these assumptions to test their validity.

Use further questions to uncover the fallacy of any wrong presuppositions. These are often ‘why’ questions. For example: “Why do you think that?” Sometimes it can be helpful to construct the ‘why’ question as a ‘what’ question for example: “What makes you think that?” This is because why questions can often feel confrontational.

At times you may need to provide contrary evidence to challenge an assumption but try and structure this as a question too if possible. If there is a cognitive fallacy (a wrong way of thinking) then try and get them to find an exception (or if necessary provide one) that proves their own theory wrong. Discover and explore this circumstance to discover new, better thinking. In this way, you are refining the basic premise of the discussion.

4. Re-state

Now that you have refined your thinking get them to reformulate and re-state their position. If they see that they had a wrong assumption, get them to adapt or renew their wording and then re-state it.

5. Re-start

Now they have a new viewpoint you can go back to the start of the process. You can assess the new premise and challenge any further wrong assumptions in their thinking. This iterative or dialectic process helps to drill down to the core of the issue. This method becomes a cycle of dialogue.

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The goal of the Socratic method

And that’s it. Simple. The question technique framework is easy to remember; the skill comes in applying it. The challenge, as noted before is to really listen to the other person and truly commit to coming to a better-shared understanding of the issue. This may come from challenging assumptions or illogical viewpoints but the goal of the Socratic method is not about winning an argument, it is about finding understanding, knowledge and truth.

“Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.”

Socrates

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For more on the development of questioning techniques see Beyond the 5Ws: Ask Questions like a Philosopher.

If you would like access to some bonus content and get updates then please do sign up for my email list.

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References

Ballif, M and Moran, M G (2005) Classical Rhetorics and Rhetoricians: Critical Studies and Sources, Westport: Praeger

Covey, S R (1989) The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, London: Simon and Schuster

Kline, N (1999) Time to Think. London: Ward Lock

Waterfield, R (trans.) (1987) Plato’s Thaeatetus, London: Penguin

The Socratic method? What on earth is that and why should I care?

Great questions.

I have been professionally taught (as a bomb disposal officer) and teach (as an instructor) question techniques.  I have also studied ancient history and modern psychology. With all that knowledge I have found there is little to beat the ancient wisdom of the Socratic method. That is why I use it, not only in my work as a professional coach but also in everyday discussions.

I recommend the Socratic method as it is a simple and practical approach to dialogue that you can use when having pretty much any discussion. As you read this you may find that you are using some of the techniques already.

But, if you hone your technique you will also improve your:

• Listening skills
• Ability to ask the right questions
• Critical thinking skills

So, whether you are a leader trying to manage your team, a frustrated buyer trying to deal with customer service, or just down in the bar putting the world to right, you will find something here for you.

I came here for an argument

Imagine that someone says something to you that you think is wrong. Time for a debate, right? You can point out their mistake and put your (obviously better) point across. Job done; argument won.

But what if winning the argument is at the expense of a relationship? What if you misunderstood what they were trying to say? Worse still, what if your position is wrong? I expect that we can all think of plenty of examples which is why we all have something to learn.

“Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel.”

Socrates

Conversational game theory

We often treat discussions as a zero-sum game. In other words, there is only one winner: win-lose in game theory parlance.

This type of dialogue is debating; one party is trying to prove that their argument is better than the other persons. But there is the rub. A debate often places emphasis on the ‘better’ rather than the most truthful argument. This is why skilful orators and writers employ rhetorical devices to create forceful arguments. They want to win.

Deep down we all feel slightly soiled when assaulted by these sorts of arguments. But unfortunately, we tend to overlook the negatives of rhetoric when we agree with the point being put across. That is largely due to our own confirmation bias.

The problem is, even when we do agree with some of this rhetoric there is a niggling feeling that things are not quite right, that we cannot move forward. That can happen in personal relationships, at work or on big political and international issues. Try to discuss any wicked problem such as education, health care or the environment and you will see what I mean.

Take politics as another example. One of the things that put many people off politics is the endless rhetoric. This is not a new phenomenon; it did not start with The Daily Show. This Sophist style of rhetoric has been challenged and ridiculed since Aristophanes was writing hit comedies for the ancient Greeks circa 400 BC.

This is because this approach to a conversation leads to the polarised stances of people, issues, and political parties. This type of debate leaves little ground for commonality. Things often end in a stalemate rather than consensus. That is bad for everyone as now we have gone from win-lose to lose-lose.

But there is a better way. Win-win outcomes are possible.

Constructive discussion

Dialogue does not need to be a debate. It all depends on the outcome that you are pursuing and how you seek to achieve that endpoint. Are you trying to resolve the argument or win it?

Are you trying to confirm your truth or the truth? The idea of the truth or absolute truth is a post-modern conundrum, so let’s park that philosophical debate for a moment. The point of the question is: are you trying to get to the actual best outcome or just what you think is the best outcome? Are you seeking understanding, or is it just “my way or the highway”?

If you are truly seeking an understanding of an idea and the best outcome for all parties then a dialogue can be a truly creative process. This is the strong belief of Nancy Kline and her development of the ‘Thinking Environment‘ where quality thinking and dialogue can take place.

“Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.”

Socrates

From heated debate to challenging dialogue

That does not mean the dialogue is not robust. You do not have to agree with everything the other person says. In fact, just the opposite. The idea is to understand the other person’s viewpoint but then challenge presuppositions and wrong assumptions.

This is not only good for getting to the truth (whatever that might be) it can be truly liberating. Good coaches and therapists know that unpicking wrong assumptions is key to unlocking many people’s challenges. It frees people from wrong thinking and therefore frees them. Frequently it is our false beliefs that hold us back.

So, you can be robust but the approach to the discussion is key. You do not start with the presupposition that you are right.

“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”

Socrates

This approach to dialogue goes back a long way, to Aristophanes and before: it is the Socratic (or elenctic) method.

How to use the Socratic method

The Socratic Method (or method of elenchus), as outlined in Plato’s Theaetetus, is a process of questioning that inspires critical thinking and analysis. Primarily the method was designed for moral and philosophical enquiry, but the technique has been used for pretty much any discussion.

Here I have simplified the Socratic dialogue approach into 5 steps:

1. Receive 

First, receive what the other person has to say. This means listening to the other person’s premise, view or argument. And remember you must properly listen to be able to do the next step. The higher your level of listening, the more effective you will be.

2. Reflect

Sum up the person’s viewpoint or argument and reflect it back. Do this by first getting them to clarify and sum up their position and then by paraphrasing or repeating it back to them. This is a classic coaching technique that builds both understanding and rapport.

3. Refine

Ask them to provide their evidence. Find out why they are thinking or acting in that way. Discover the facts, beliefs or assumptions that underpin their standpoint. Often the premise will be based on assumptions rather than hard facts. Challenge these assumptions to test their validity.

Use further types of questions to uncover the fallacy of any wrong presuppositions. These are often ‘why’ questions. For example: “why do you think that?” Sometimes it can be helpful to construct the ‘why’ question as a ‘what’ question for example: “what makes you think that?” This is because why questions can often feel confrontational.

At times you may need to provide contrary evidence to challenge an assumption but try and structure this as a question too if possible. If there is a cognitive fallacy (a wrong way of thinking) then try and get them to find an exception (or if necessary, provide one) that proves their own theory wrong. Discover and explore this circumstance to discover new, better thinking. In this way, you are refining the basic premise of the discussion.

4. Re-state

Now that you have refined your thinking get them to reformulate and re-state their position. If they see that they had a wrong assumption, get them to adapt or renew their wording and then re-state it.

5. Repeat

Now they have a new viewpoint you can go back to the start of the process. You can assess the new premise and challenge any further wrong assumptions in their thinking. This method becomes a cycle of dialogue (similar to Kolb’s learning cycle). The iterative or dialectic process helps to drill down further and further to get to the core of the issue.

And that’s it. Simple. The question technique framework is easy to remember; the skill comes in applying it. The challenge, as noted before, is to really listen to the other person and truly commit to coming to a better-shared understanding of the issue.

“I cannot teach anybody anything. I can only make them think”

Socrates

Why people (especially leaders) need to use the Socratic Method and ask good questions

As a leader who prefers to lead in a non-directive style (in other words I ask lots of questions) and as a professional leadership coach, I know that seeking understanding is vitally important to success.

That is because success is not just winning the prize or beating the competition. That is short term. Real leadership success is taking people with you, involving them in the journey and creating a future that is better for everyone. As a leader, you might have a fabulous vision of that better future but if you want to get there you need to take people with you.

Whoever you are, whether in a leadership role or not, you should want to embrace the diversity of thought others bring in order to learn, as well as to achieve your life goals. You will also want to unblock any negativity in relationships that you have. This means you need to develop an understanding and apply empathy and emotional intelligence. Remember:

“Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle.”

Socrates

Therefore, seek understanding. Seek knowledge. Have productive dialogue. Learn. Progress.

This is why I have found asking questions so powerful and the Socratic method so useful. The father of philosophy gives us the structure, all we need to bring is the right attitude.

So, next time you feel your argument becoming a polarised debate, remember the Socratic method and have a truly productive exchange of ideas.

And if you want to continue to further your skills, read Ask Questions as a Philosopher; Answer Like a Visionary

I have had a fascination with philosophy, and particularly with Socrates, ever since winning the book, A History of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell, as a prize at school. As someone passionate about personal development, and as a professional coach, it continues to amaze me how many important themes, such as self-inquiry, question technique and ethical decision-making, can be traced back to the thinking of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Socrates and the importance of self-improvement

Arguably, Socrates was the father of personal development as well as Western philosophy. He is most associated with the Greek aphorism, “know thyself” and is quoted as saying,

“To know thyself is the beginning of wisdom”

Socrates

This premise is echoed in personal development literature, such as Stephen Covey’s The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, which starts with mastery of self before moving onto success in the public field or in the leadership of others.

It is somewhat tautological to say that self-improvement should start with self, but it is a point that is often overlooked. All too often, when setting goals, we choose to focus on people around us. This might be in making unhealthy comparisons (a particular problem in the age of social media), blaming our situation on others, or endlessly seeking to fix everything around us, without doing any home maintenance.

To know that we have progressed – in whatever field we want to develop – we need to be able to manage a process of improvement. As the adage goes, “you can only manage what you can measure.” That being the case, when setting a goal, you need to define the start-state as well as the end-state. Self-examination should therefore be the first step of productive personal development. We start by working out where we are now. And the most important aspect of this self-examination is to identify the motivations, beliefs and ideals that inform our behaviours.

Socratic ethics, virtues, and values

Socrates, in his dialogues, sought to seek out and test the foundations on which people based their ideas and actions. He also believed there were right and wrong actions, good and bad decisions. In other words, he sought virtuous behaviour and ethical decision-making.

Socrates believed in an objective good, a standard of right and wrong. This contrasted with the Sophists who treated truth as relative. The Sophists were more concerned with eloquent debates and winning arguments; it was less important whether what they were arguing for was true or not. Today a Sophist might be compared to an unprincipled lawyer who is willing to defend anyone for the right price, or a rotten politician who is willing to say anything to bolster their position. Few of us would claim to know objective truth but fewer still are comfortable with such extremes of relativism. Most people prefer to have principles to live by.

Are there immutable and irrefutable principles? It is an excellent philosophical question and one that is still being asked. Socrates did not claim to know, or presume to dictate, the standard of absolute truth, but he always strove to find it. I think that is a great place to start. We can imitate the likes of Socrates by having the humility to admit we may not know the truth and that we are imperfect people. Add to this a curiosity to seek out the good and a determination to change, and we find ourselves describing what today we call a growth mindset.

We might not have thought of it in these terms before, but this search for truth is – in philosophical terms – about ethics. It is about making the right choices. If these choices are about acting beyond pure self-interest, then we are also talking about virtues. And there is the rub. A lot of what we desire might be purely selfish; it may even be base or wrong. Self-examination can require us to be brutally honest with ourselves about what we value and why.

Integrity and leadership

Leadership also starts with self. If you cannot lead yourself well, how can you expect others to follow you? That is why leadership itself is a development journey akin to broader self-improvement; it is a path of learning much more than it is a role or title. Which ones again leads us back to the need for self-inquiry and the need to ask some questions.

If you compare lists of leadership traits, probably the most common trait you will come across is integrity. In my military career, it was certainly considered the most important of leadership traits as a failure of integrity was the quickest way to lose credibility as a commander.

Integrity is about walking the talk; about acting in accordance with the standards that you set. But this begs the question, what is the right standard? In theory, a bad boss could have integrity of a sort if they acted in accordance with their ideals, even if bad ones. So, integrity must be coupled with the idea of good leadership, not just effective management. And hence we find ourselves back in the realms of ethics, virtues, and values again; as we need to know our principles to act in alignment with them, and the precepts we follow should be good ones.

Socratic questioning

Similarly, to Confucius and Buddha, Socrates’ style of pedagogy was through inquiry. In other words, he taught by asking questions. In this way, I like to think that Socrates is the grandfather of coaching as well as philosophy and self-improvement!

Socrates developed the elenchus or Socratic question technique. The aim of this technique was to clarify someone’s position on a subject and then question the foundational assumptions of the idea to test its logic. The technique has been adapted and used in diverse fields such as debating, legal cross-examination and coaching. If you are curious about the world and like to understand ideas and test beliefs, then it is an important tool – even if just to use in everyday conversation.

“The highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others.” 

Socrates

In this context, we can use the same process to question ourselves. If we do not have someone to help us, such as a coach or counsellor, we can do some self-reflection. Using a journal or taking notes can be helpful in this process. Here is a simplified way to use the Socratic method when using it for self-examination:

Reflect

Reflect upon a statement or a decision that you have made. Some of the most insightful statements and decisions to investigate are the more negative ones. For example, we might choose not to do something, saying “I can’t do that!” Hold that thought or write it down.

Refine

The next step is to refine. Here the context of the word refine is like that of refining precious metal; the aim here is to expose our thinking to the flame, to burn away untruths and remove the impurities from our thinking.

To do this we must examine the assumptions that have informed our words and actions. If we don’t think we can do something, why is that? What is the belief or feeling that underpins this? Some assumptions are reasonable, some are simply false. The purpose of this stage is to sift what is true from what is not.

Re-state

Once we have examined the thinking behind our statement or decision, we can re-state it, bringing in our new knowledge. If there was a false assumption identified, it might be we can turn the statement on its head. We might be saying “I can” instead of “I can’t”.

Repeat

The next step is to further examine the new statement. Are there further assumptions that need to be identified and tested? In this way the process is like the 5 Whys interrogative technique; we keep on asking the questions until we get to the fundamental issue. As we delve ever further into our thinking, we should be able to identify the core beliefs that shape our thinking, the standards that drive our behaviour and the values that inform our decisions.

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Know thyself

Socrates commitment to enquiry, truth and ethics got him into trouble. He was nicknamed the gadfly; an annoying biting insect, by self-important and self-proclaimed wise people. They did not like to be exposed by Socrates as his questioning revealed their fallacies and undermined their position. He so challenged the beliefs and norms of his day that he was sentenced to death. His integrity was amply demonstrated in his unwillingness to back down in his search for truth.

Revealing the truth can be uncomfortable and maintaining our integrity often comes at personal cost. Self-inquiry can be a humbling process, but it is a vital one if we truly want to be happy in who we are and successful in what we do.

So, be prepared to be confronted with some brutal facts as you begin your self-examination. And don’t just make it a one-off, instead, develop a habit of challenging your own thinking. For all of us, whether in leadership positions or not, this process of reflection is a vital part of self-improvement.

Be like Socrates and seek to know thyself.